Fedor Sergeevich Kapitsa Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals. Fedor Kapitsa - Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals

F.S. Kapitsa Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals Directory 8th edition, stereotypical Moscow Publishing house "FLINTA" 2011 UDC 391/395(036) BBK 63.5я2 K20 Reviewer Dr. philol. Sciences M.I. Shcherbakova K20 Kapitsa F.S. Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals [electronic resource]: reference book / F.S. Kapitsa. – 8th ed., stereotype. – M.: FLINTA, 2011. – 296 p. ISBN 978-5-89349-308-5 The book consistently and systematically reflects the ideas of the Slavs of pagan times, the early Christian period about the world and its structure, as well as rituals and symbols of Slavic mythology, characters of Slavic fairy tales, folk customs, rituals, holidays and Christian rituals. An explanation is given of the rituals and sacraments that have survived to this day, taking into account the latest achievements of folklore and ethnography. Illustrations from rare and little-known sources are provided. For students and teachers of philology, language arts students, high school students and applicants, as well as everyone interested in the history and culture of Russia. UDC 391/395(036) BBK 63.5я2 ISBN 978-5-89349-308-5 © FLINTA Publishing House, 2011 4 Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and ritual research should become the subject of major scientific work. The proposed reference book takes one of the steps in this direction, identifies the main trends in the existence of two layers of Russian culture and highlights the most significant features. Note that for a number of years such issues were excluded from the scope of scientific research. It is obvious that the system of beliefs of each people develops over a long period of time and depends on various historical, social and personal factors. A feature of Slavic mythology was contamination, the combination of different components. One of them was “paganism” - a huge complex of primitive beliefs, views and rituals that developed in time immemorial and became the basis on which the main world religions were later formed. The Eastern Slavs, like other European peoples, had a detailed system of beliefs and ideas about the supernatural world. Its roots go back to Indo-European antiquity. The term “paganism” comes from the word “pagans”, i.e. peoples, foreigners who have not yet accepted Christianity. Often, instead of the concept of “paganism”, another term is used: “polytheism” (“polyte)ism”). Such use of terms seems inaccurate, since they reflect two different levels of knowledge of the world: paganism is based on the spiritualization of the nature surrounding man, and polytheism is based on the belief in the existence of a vast host of gods. Like other religions, Slavic paganism reflected the desire of people to understand the world around them. Ancient man likened objects and phenomena to living beings, endowed them with soul and character. He believed that trees and stones, water and air were inhabited by good or evil spirits. Therefore, a person performed any action as if in the presence of mysterious supernatural forces. Among them were both pagan deities (Perun and Veles, Dazhdbog and Mokosh, Stribog and Khors) and mythological creatures (mermaids, goblins, brownies, fantastic animals and birds). Supernatural beings could both help and harm a person. This means that they had to win over them by making appropriate sacrifices, while performing ritual dances and songs. So-called magical rituals became a form of communication with supernatural beings. Unlike religious rituals, they were not aimed at achieving any specific result; most often, people simply sought to ward off or scare away hostile forces. Sometimes they were asked for personal well-being, a cure for illness, or the creation of favorable conditions for a future harvest. This is how the first rituals arose, which accompanied a person’s entire life from birth to death. Over time, many rituals were lost magical meaning and turned into games that have survived to this day. The animation of the other world led to the emergence of polytheism; each specific phenomenon was associated with the name of one or another god. A classic example of such a polytheistic system is religion. Ancient Greece , in which there were several dozen gods, seemingly responsible for the most diverse aspects of everyday life. Having gone through a long period of development in the ancient world, in different cultures, such systems by the beginning of our era included many gods, distributed by rank (higher and lower gods and heroes). With the development of writing, they began to take shape in the form of cycles, which gradually led to the creation of national epics (“Elder Edda”). The mythological beliefs of the Slavs were radically different from the mythologies of other European peoples. The Slavs began to form as an ethnic group only in the 4th–6th centuries, therefore, by the time of the adoption of Christianity in the 9th century. pagan ideas did not yet represent a coherent system, and the pantheon of the highest gods was just beginning to take shape; beliefs in individual gods continued to exist even after the introduction of official religion. In addition, mythology existed only in oral form, since before the adoption of Christianity the Slavs did not have a written language. At one time M.V. Lomonosov wrote: “We would have many fables, like the Greeks, if the Slavs had science in idolatry.” Unlike paganism, later religions - Christianity, Islam, Buddhism are based on belief in one God, in a single supernatural force that governs the entire universe. They are called) 6 Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals are monotheistic (from the Greek “monos” - one). But in fact, both they and paganism are based on the same principle - man gives supernatural power to nature, the great unknowable spirit that gives birth to all living things and plunges them into death. After the spread of Christianity, despite the existence of writing, pagan beliefs were not written down, but became the object of denunciation, although, as noted, it was not possible to completely eradicate ancient traditions. They continued to exist in oral tradition. Today, in order to get an idea of ​​Slavic mythology, we have to use indirect data. The information given in the surviving works of ancient and Byzantine historians is rather meager and often lacks accuracy. The ancient authors did not seek to penetrate the peculiarities of the life and customs of the Slavs, assessing what they saw from the position of an ill-informed outside observer. Let us dwell on the organization of the process of veneration of deities. The deification of natural phenomena was not expressed in specific rituals and rites; it was rather spontaneous in nature and was perceived as simple veneration. The later stage was based on the veneration of images of deities or idols and was based on complex rituals and a system of sacrifices. The personification of the gods, or pagan piety, and the establishment of a system of sacrifices required the organization of places of worship, with each god being rewarded depending on the place he occupied in the pantheon. Sacrifices were made to the domestic gods in the family circle. Magnificent ceremonies were dedicated to the main (common clan) gods, in which many people participated. Typically, such holidays dedicated to the main gods took place over several days and were accompanied by abundant feasts. Rituals were carried out in special places - temples. Initially, they were arranged in places that were considered sacred: on high hills, in river bends, near old trees, large stones. When special images of gods became the object of veneration, rituals began to be performed near them. On certain days, sacrifices (including human ones) were made in the temples. After the adoption of Christianity, polytheism was replaced by theism (from the Greek “theos” - god). Accordingly, pagan deities and mi) Preface 7 phological characters received the name “evil spirits.” However, they continued to be believed in, and traces of these beliefs were preserved in many signs, customs and beliefs. Instead of many gods, the subject of cult became a single omnipotent god, who was revered as the creator of all living things. The sacrifice of specific objects or people was replaced by a symbolic, “bloodless” sacrifice, performed only in the minds of believers. At the same time, the more ancient ideas were not forgotten; they entered too deeply into people’s consciousness and into everyday life and could not immediately be replaced by new ones. The pagan beliefs of the Eastern Slavs gradually entered the Christian cult. As a result, the so-called “dual faith” arose, in which pagan ideas were united into a single whole with the dogmas of Christianity so closely that sometimes it is impossible to separate them at all. Let us note that the pagan ideas themselves changed in the process of interaction - some images were forgotten and disappeared, others appeared. When Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian traditions began to form on the basis of a single East Slavic culture, in each of them the common mythological heritage changed in its own way. In addition, beliefs and traditions appeared that were known in a certain area. Thus, the image of a mermaid is known to all Eastern Slavs, but in the Russian North they talk about her differently than in the South or Ukraine. Although pagan deities were not openly recognized, belief in them did not disappear. The familiar images of pagan deities coexisted peacefully with Christian saints. Elijah the Prophet became associated with Perun, the god of thunder and lightning, Saint Nicholas began to be identified with the patron saint of cattle, Veles. Sometimes a purely mechanical transfer of functions occurred, for example, based on the consonance of names: the Christian Saint Blaise became the patron of livestock, taking over his “responsibilities” from the pagan god Veles. Having absorbed the freer and even in some sense amorphous structure of paganism, Christianity subordinated it to its own logic, which manifested itself in the systematization of pagan beliefs. Thus, the ancient Slavs did not distinguish between heaven and hell; they believed in a single afterlife, which could be located somewhere overseas, in heaven, and in the underworld. Under the influence of Christianity, ideas about the “other world” became more defined. The lower, underground world (underworld) began to be perceived as the place of residence of the negative spiritual principle, evil spirits. All places close to the lower world - swamps, pits, ravines, basements - were inhabited by hostile and dark creatures opposing the power of the “godmother”. Accordingly, the upper, heavenly world began to be perceived as the habitat of “righteous and divine forces,” bright, full of holiness. The will of God and God's providence dominate over all beings. The organic fusion of two sets of beliefs was also determined by the coincidence of individual ritual actions. The main ones can be considered the veneration of bread and water. During the liturgy, bread, a bloodless sacrifice to God, replaces the “body of Christ.” Blessed water, which protected against evil spirits, became the basis of the sacrament of baptism. A fire or candle burning in a lamp symbolizes pure and unquenchable love. Earth denotes the material essence of human flesh (“as you are the earth and you will go back to the earth”). The fruits brought to the church and consecrated received healing powers. Pagan rituals have become an organic component of many Christian holidays (Christmas, Easter, Intercession). Back in the middle of the twentieth century. Belarusian peasants sincerely revered Saint Nicholas, but at the same time they performed various ritual actions in order to protect themselves from the machinations of witches on Ivan Kupala. Different stages of representation not only do not conflict, but also coexist perfectly, complementing each other. The form of their coexistence is the system of folk rituals and customs, called folk Orthodoxy. Having set himself a specific task aimed at presenting folk culture to the general reader, the author of the reference book is well aware of how difficult and difficult it is to solve it. By attracting and interpreting various sources, he sought not to lose sight of any source worthy of respect, and at the same time to avoid inclusion of unverified and unconfirmed information in the reference book. Preface 9 The main source of information about Slavic mythology is considered to be records of folklore and ethnographic data collected by researchers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Note that the study of the traditional culture of the Slavic peoples lasts only a little more than two centuries, but it was carried out so intensively that only during the 18th - first third of the 19th centuries. At least one and a half hundred studies appeared on various spheres of folk culture. At the end and at the beginning of this stream, two encyclopedias can be distinguished - the book of the journalist and publisher M. Chulkov “ABeVeGa of Russian superstitions” (1782) and the fundamental, but, unfortunately, not yet completed dictionary “Slavic Antiquities” edited by the academician N.I. Tolstoy (1995). There is a huge time distance between these works, reflecting the difficult evolution of views on Russian culture. Until the middle of the 19th century. folk culture was considered something base, rude, absurd, unworthy of the attention of educated people. Subsequently, she became the object of enthusiastic worship, and only from the middle of the 19th century. we can talk about the beginning of its scientific research. All this time, tireless, painstaking, outwardly imperceptible work was going on to collect, record and study the surviving monuments of the past. The process of accumulation of material was reflected in the appearance of significant scientific works. Among them it is necessary to note the books by A.N. Afanasyeva, E.V. Anichkova, A.N. Veselovsky, P.N. Bogatyreva, D.K. Zelenina, A.A. Potebnya, V.Ya. Propp and many others. Based on the work carried out, it becomes possible to create a fairly complete picture of Slavic paganism. Thus, what we understand by the words “Old Russian mythology” is 90% reconstruction, and for this reason alone it presupposes a large share of convention. But this is a scientific reconstruction, because it is based on the laws of the development of human culture and is confirmed by a comparison of facts. The number of reliable primary sources (usually they are retellings of ancient texts by Orthodox authors) is quite limited. They are used so often by researchers that individual materials related to one or another per) 10 Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals of sonazhu have become a kind of “common place”, repeated in most publications on this topic. In a number of cases, the authors of dictionaries and reference books on Slavic mythology rely on information gleaned from works of the 19th century, without realizing that they are basically outdated many decades ago. They do not take into account that the materials accumulated over the subsequent years, including those contained in foreign studies, have led to a revision of many assessments and points of view. New facts obtained from comparative studies are not always introduced. Compensating for the lack of information, some authors add their own assumptions and additions to it, without caring about their confirmation by facts. They often connect similar facts without taking into account that they relate to phenomena at different times. It should also be said about deliberate hoaxes. They began to appear in Russian culture in the first decades of the 19th century, almost simultaneously with the development of Russian ethnography. At that time, they tried to “compensate” for the lack of real scientific facts. In the 20th century unknown monuments began to be “discovered”. These include the publication of the notorious “B) forest book.” Although the greatest scientists - V.V. Vinogradov, D.S. Likhachev, O.V. Tvorogov back in the 2nd half of the 20th century. proved that it is a hoax and was compiled not in ancient times, but at the beginning of the twentieth century, many authors of popular science books continue to stubbornly “ignore” such assessments. As a result, a powerful layer of “completely reliable” information has formed, which an inexperienced reader often accepts as truthful1. Of course, the author of this reference book could not avoid some errors and inaccuracies. Therefore, he will be grateful for any constructive comments. Email address: [email protected]. 1 1982. See: Borovsky Ya. The mythological world of the ancient Kievites. Kyiv, 11 Bibliography BIBLIOGRAPHY Apostolos Cappadona D. Dictionary of Christian art. Chelya) Binsk, 2000. Belovinsky L. Russian historical and everyday dictionary. M., 1999. Bernshtam T. Russian folk culture of Pomerania in the 19th – early 20th centuries. L., 1983. Gimbutas M. Slavs. M., 2003, 2004, 2005. Gimbutas M. Balty. M., 2004. Gromyko M. The World of Russian Village. M., 1991. Spiritual culture of northern Belozerie: Ethnodialectal vocabulary. M., 1997. Once upon a time. Russian ritual poetry. St. Petersburg, 1997. Zabylin M. Russian people. Its customs, rituals, legends, superstitions and poetry. M., 1880, 1989. Zelenin D. East Slavic ethnography. M., 1991. Calendar customs and rituals in foreign European countries. Late XIX – early XX centuries. Winter holidays. M., 1973. Calendar customs and rituals in foreign European countries. Late XIX – early XX centuries. Spring holidays. M., 1977. History of world culture: Schoolchildren's Handbook / Comp. F. Kapitsa, T. Kolyadich. M., 1996. Kagarov E. Religion of the ancient Slavs. M., 1918. KonSherbok D., KonSheobok L. Judaism and Christianity: Dictionary. M., 1995. Korinfsky A. People's Rus'. M., 1901. Kruglov Yu. Ritual poetry. T. 1–2. M., 1997–1998. All year round. Russian agricultural calendar. M., 1989. Levkievskaya E. Myths of the Russian people. M., 2000. Maksimov S. Unclean, unknown and the power of the god. St. Petersburg, 1903. Myths of the peoples of the world. T. 1–2. M., 1982. Mythological dictionary. M., 1986. Nekrylova A. Russian folk city holidays, entertainment and spectacles. The end of the 18th – the beginning of the 20th century. L., 1988. Essays on the history of Slavic culture. M., 1996. Panchenko A. People's Orthodoxy. St. Petersburg, 1998. Petrukhin V. Paganism of the ancient Slavs in the light of international research. M., 1985. 12 Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals Pomerantseva E. Mythological characters in Russian folklore. M., 1975. Poetry of peasant holidays. L., 1970. Propp V. Russian agrarian holidays: Experience of historical and ethnographic research. L., 1963. History of culture Ancient Rus'. T. 1–2. M., 1951. Russian demonological dictionary. St. Petersburg, 1995. Rybakov B. Paganism of the Ancient Slavs. M., 1981. Rybakov B. Paganism of Ancient Rus'. M., 1987. Garden of Demons: Dictionary of Infernal Mythology of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. M., 1998. Semenova M. We are Slavs! M., 1997. Slavic mythology: Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1995. Slavic antiquities: Ethnolinguistic dictionary. T. 1. M., 1995; T. 2. M., 1999; T. 3. M., 2004. Dictionary of religions. Judaism. Christianity. Islam. St. Petersburg, 2008. Snegirev I. Russian common holidays and superstitious rituals. Vol. 1–4. M., 1838. Sokolova V. Spring and summer calendar rituals Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. M., 1979. Tereshchenko A. Life of the Russian people. T. 1–4. St. Petersburg, 1848. Tokarev S. Religious beliefs of the East Slavic peoples. M., 1957. Chicherov V. Winter period folk Russian agricultural calendar. XVI–XIX centuries M., 1957. Kharlitsky M., Khromov S. Russian holidays, folk customs, traditions, rituals: A book for reading. M., 1996. Christianity: Encyclopedic Dictionary. T. 1–3. M., 1991–1995. Shangina I.I. Russian traditional life: Encyclopedic dictionary. St. Petersburg, 2003. Shangina I.I. Russian people. Weekdays and holidays: Encyclopedia. St. Petersburg, 2004. Shipov Ya.A. Orthodox dictionary. M., 1998. Ethnography of the Eastern Slavs: Essays on traditional culture. M., 1987. Pagan characters Avsen Mythological character, the main character of the ritual associated with the celebration of the New Year or Christmas. Probably, his name goes back to the Old Russian root “usin” - bluish, meeting) found in the names of the winter months (for example, prosinets - January). Other researchers believe that the word “avsen” comes from the word “canopy” (light). With the arrival of Avsen, the day is added, and the bright part of the year begins. A cycle of native songs is dedicated to Avsen, where he appears as an anthropomorphic character. They tell that Avsen comes on horseback and builds a bridge over which all other annual holidays “come”: Christmas, Epiphany, St. Basil’s Day. Since Avsen's arrival marked the beginning of the New Year celebration, with the honoring of Avsen in the traditional folk calendar, the spring cycle of holidays related to ensuring the fertility of the earth began. Therefore, they tried to appease Avsen in every possible way: he was solemnly greeted, treated to specially prepared dishes - pancakes, flat cakes, porridge, pies, pork legs. Ritual songs were sung by children who went on January 1 to congratulate their fellow villagers. They carried a basket with grain (wheat or oats). The children sang congratulations and threw grains across the table into the red corner. The housewife gave gifts to the children, and they moved to the next house. Here is one of these songs: Ovsen, osen! Bring me some brawn! What's the use of brusen? Sharpen the braid. What's the braid for? Mow the grass. What's the grass for? Feed the cows. What are cows for? Milk milk. What's the milk for? Feed the guys. Why guys? They have to plow the arable land. Break the beds. 16 Pagan Bannik A spirit that lives in a bathhouse, most often on a shelf or in the oven. Bannik was represented as a small naked old man, covered with mud or leaves from brooms. He could also transform into a dog or cat. Sometimes the bannik was presented in a female form - then he acted under the name shishi) gi (from the dialect verb shi shish - to swarm, move, do furtively). Outwardly, she looked like a small woman and was also dangerous for humans, so it was not recommended to come to the bathhouse without an appropriate offering. Bannik. Rice. AND I. Bilibina In some places, banni)ka was called obderikha. According to beliefs, she looked like a woman with long arms, big teeth, floor-length hair and wide-set eyes. She was respectfully called “the mistress of the bath.” Before washing, they respectfully asked: “Housewife of the bath, let us wash, fry, steam.” When leaving, they thanked: “Thank you, hostess, for the guy’s bathhouse. Good for you, good for us." Since the bathhouse has always been considered the habitat of evil spirits, the bannik was usually perceived as a character hostile to humans. To ward off the bannik, they sacrificed a black chicken to him, and after washing in the bathhouse they left a broom, a bar of soap and some warm water. Before entering the bathhouse, they “asked” the owner to let them wash and not harm people. During bath day All people were usually divided into three lines and washed in “three pairs”; the “fourth pair” was intended for the bathhouse. Before starting to wash the banner, they warned us with the words: “Baptized on the shelf, unbaptized - from the shelf.” characters It was believed that the bannik was washed together with other household spirits - brownie, yard spirit, kikimora. Therefore, after the third steam, people should have left the bathhouse. In addition, it was forbidden to wash after midnight, and it was strictly forbidden to eat in the bathhouse. It was not allowed to heat the bathhouse on holidays, especially on Christmastide, because at that time devils or banniks and their children washed there. All of the above beliefs have a clear practical basis, since carbon monoxide gradually accumulated in a closed bathhouse, and a person could suffocate. The bathhouse could especially harm a child left unattended in the bathhouse. There was a belief that whoever the child is, the bannik replaces it with his own cub. The changeling is distinguished by its ugly appearance and the fact that it always screams. Unlike other children, he does not grow and does not start walking on time. Usually, after a few years, the changelings died, turning into a firebrand or a broom. Being a habitat of evil spirits, the bathhouse was considered one of the places of Christmas divination. At this time, at midnight, the women approached the door of the bathhouse or the brow (entrance) of the heater. Sticking their hand or the naked back of their body there, the girls waited for the bannerman’s answer. If he touched with a shaggy hand, it was assumed that the groom would be kind and rich, if naked - poor and evil. They not only washed themselves in the bathhouse, but also gave birth, since it was the warmest and cleanest place in the house. To prevent the bannitsa from causing harm, the woman in labor did not remove the cross, and she was never left alone. In the northern regions, it was believed that a bathhouse grandmother lived in the bathhouse and could cure any disease. She was treated with a spell before the first wash of a newborn child. During the construction of a new bathhouse or when moving to a new place, the bannik, like the housekeeper, was invited with him. Usually this was done by the owner of the house, and its inhabitants brought treats and a strangled black rooster or chicken to the bathhouse. Then the chicken was transferred to a new bathhouse, where it was buried under the threshold. It was believed that after completing the rituals, the bannik settled in a new place, and it was possible to wash in the bathhouse. 18 Belobog God of luck and happiness among the Slavic peoples. In the consciousness of ancient man, the whole world was divided into two parts - favorable and hostile. Each of them was controlled by its own god, who determined human destiny. One deity was responsible for all the good (White God), and the other for all the bad (Black God). The existence of faith in Be) lobog is confirmed by the toponyms associated with him, preserved to this day among various Slavic peoples - the names of mountains (hills). Thus, Mount Belobog was found in Serbia, near Moscow, back in the 19th century. There was an area called "White Gods". The popularity of Belobog is confirmed by numerous mentions in medieval chronicles, which included stories of travelers from other countries. In particular, the German monk Helmold, who visited the Slavic countries in the 12th century, wrote in the chronicle named after him that the Slavs do not begin any serious affairs without sacrifice to Belobog. However, over time, they lost faith in Belobog, although pagan traces of it have survived to this day. In particular, the belief that white brings good luck. In Russian fairy tales, the images of Belobog and Chernobog merged into a single character, who received the name “Share”, “Judge”. She can be good or bad. This is where the idea arose that a person’s fate is determined by Share or Nedol. They are also similar to the people to whom they are given. The difference is that the Share is dressed in Nice dress , and Nedolya - old and torn. To live happily, you need to know your lot, i.e. mind your own business. You could see your share like this: go to the field on Easter night and, hearing the ringing of the bells for the evening, ask: “Where is my share.” Having heard the answer, you should have gone where it was said, and seeing Dolya, ask her for advice. Unlike Doli, Nedolya, on the contrary, comes to a person’s house and sits on the stove, because she is always cold. In Belarus they say that sometimes Nedolya is accompanied by small demons - Sinisters. They looked like small animals living behind the stove or sitting on the shoulders. Sometimes the evil one looked like a mangy 19 characters cat. The evil one could be put in a bag and drowned, buried, or left at a crossroads. All of these beliefs show the influence of European demonology, where the witch was accompanied by household spirits. Demons Initially, the word “demon” meant a spirit hostile to man. Traces of beliefs in demons can be found in numerous ancient conspiracies. As Christianity spread, pagan ideas about a hostile spirit were combined with the idea of ​​Christian demons, the personified embodiment of all kinds of evil. It is known that the angels who spoke out against the Lord God became demons. As punishment, the angels were cast down from heaven to earth. Once in the human world, they lost their angelic traits and turned into numerous demons. The legends also say that demons are the servants of the Devil, the main fallen angel, the worst enemy of God. In the lives of saints and teachings, they themselves call not only demons, but also pagan gods. Usually the plot is connected with them) you are about the temptation of the saints. In addition, they attacked monks, ascetics and hermits, trying by any means to interfere with their service to God. The first stories about such demonic intrigues date back to the 11th century, their author is the Egyptian hermit Anthony the Great. He overcomes various temptations and avoids the traps set by tireless demons seeking to interfere with his monastic solitude. After the spread of Christianity in Rus', stories about the tricks of demons also appeared. In the Prologue there is a story about how John the City caught a demon in a washstand, defeated him and rode him to Jerusalem. The winner of the demon could be like this) Demon. Rice. AND I. Bilibin 20 to act as a soldier or a blacksmith. These motifs were used by N.V. Go)gol in the story “The Night Before Christmas” (the blacksmith Vakula travels on a demon to St. Petersburg). The dual origin of demons (divine and earthly) was manifested in the fact that their functions significantly expanded, for example, determining their power over the elements. Demons could spin whirlwinds, raise blizzards, send rain and storms. The beliefs are reflected in the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Demons” (1831): Look, there he is playing, Blowing, spitting on me, Now he’s pushing a wild horse into a ravine, There he stuck out in front of me for an unprecedented mile, There he sparkled with a small spark, And disappeared in the empty darkness... At the same time, demons retained some properties of angels: superhuman power, the ability to fly, read human thoughts and inspire their desires in a person. In the Christian tradition, demons were usually depicted as humanoid creatures, covered with shaggy hair, pagan black or blue skin, with a long tail, with claws on their hands and feet. Most often, the demon appeared before a person in the form of a cat, dog, or wolf, but he could also turn into people. The main function of demons is associated with causing various, most often minor, harm to people. There are many known fairy tales in which the demon takes the form of a person and seduces gullible people. It was also believed that the devil was capable of sending illness, depriving a person of strength, or simply deceiving. Demons are especially active on Christmas night and Christmastide, which are traditionally considered a time of rampant evil spirits. Since the demon was always somewhere nearby, close to the person, as if expecting his mistakes, everyday failures were usually associated with him. This is where many proverbs come from: “The demon has led you astray,” “This is the demon’s leprosy,” “The demons have averted their eyes.” To protect yourself from demons, you had to wear a cross around your neck, and start every task with a prayer or simply with the words: “Lord, bless.” 21 characters Witch The main character of the demonology of the Eastern and Western Slavs. The image of a witch combines the features of a folklore character and the properties of some demonological creatures. According to popular beliefs, an ordinary woman became a witch and was possessed by an evil spirit. The devil, devil, demon, and even her deceased husband were considered such. After all, they became mine for the purpose of enrichment after concluding a corresponding agreement with evil spirits. The properties of a witch were inherited from mother to daughter or from grandmother to granddaughter. They believed that the witch could not die until she transferred her witchcraft power. Sometimes, after all, they considered me to be simply a lonely woman who differed from those around her in her behavior or did not communicate with her neighbors. The description of appearance in Slavic folklore is no different from its European counterparts. She looked like an ordinary woman, only sometimes she had a tail and horns. After all, my mother had a heavy, unfriendly look, her eyes were barely visible from under her swollen, reddened eyelids. It was believed that the witch never looks into the eyes because in her pupils you can see the upside-down reflection of a person. Most often, the witch was presented as an ugly old woman with a hooked nose, bony hands, and sometimes lame or hunchbacked. But she could take on the appearance of a beautiful woman or girl in order to more easily lure people into her network. This is exactly the kind of witch portrayed by N.V. Gogol in the images of Solokha and Pannochka (“The Night Before Christmas” and “Viy”, 1831). The functions of a witch also practically do not differ among different nations. Usually, after all) ma was engaged in cleaning the pores) Witch. Rice. AND I. Bilibin 22 hours on people, pets, plants, as well as witchcraft. As a result of her actions, people began to quarrel, fight, and could even die. In Ukraine and the Carpathians, mothers were credited with the ability to cause rain, send hurricanes, hail, fires, storms and droughts. The witch could cause harm to crops by breaking or tying ears of corn in the field. They believed that by collecting the spikelets, the witch also took the future harvest from the field. Demonologists believed that at night the witch's soul left her body, trying to harm people or attend the Sabbath. The witch could also spoil livestock and take milk from cows, lard from pigs, eggs from chickens, and yarn from women. To do this, she collected dew from the pastures and sprinkled it on her cow. Numerous tales are known in which the characters repeated the witch’s witchcraft actions at home, and then did not know what to do with the large amount of milk from the cow. Finally, a witch could bewitch a person, turn him into a horse and ride him to death. The Eastern Slavs believed that witches manifest themselves primarily during holidays) Pagan coves - on Ivan Kupala, St. George's Day, the Annunciation, Easter and Trinity. It was believed that witches were especially dangerous during periods of the full moon and stormy nights. The Western Slavs also considered the most dangerous days of St. John, Lucius, Peter and Paul, the feast of Corpus Christi, and Walpurgis Night. On such days, witches attacked people by turning into a toad, dog, pig or cat. To protect against witches, amulets were usually used. To prevent the witch from entering the courtyard, a candle, consecrated in the church on Candlemas, had to be placed on the gate. Both were a broom stuck up with rods on a long stick, the teeth of a harrow or fork, as well as a stove grip. To protect the house, a knife, ax, scythe or other cutting objects were placed on the threshold. In the fairy tale (“Finist - the clear falcon”) it is said that he could not enter the house because of the knives placed at the window. Magical actions also protected from witches - showering a house or yard with poppy seeds, circling them, outlining walls with chalk, drawing crosses on gates, windows and doors. Herbs also protected, for example, wormwood, garlic, 23 characters, St. Andrew's cross, which scared away evil spirits. A significant part of the beliefs about witches is associated with ways of recognizing them. To do this, special ritual or ritual actions had to be carried out. It was believed, in particular, that upon seeing the Kupala lights, the witch would begin to suffer - writhing in convulsions, suffering from headaches. To stop the unpleasant sensations, she went out to the fire. Then it was necessary to neutralize the witch by pouring water boiled on the Kupal fire with needles thrown there on her. To force the witch to approach the fire, the milk of the cow she had cast a spell on was poured into the fire. When planning to deal with the witches, they were kept in wait in places where they could cause harm, for example, near the barn or stables. If I discovered a toad or frog alive there, I should have cut off its paw or gouged out its eye. Later, one of the women in the area was seen with a bandaged hand or eye. Sometimes an animal caught in a stable was simply killed and then thrown into the water. You could also hit the witch with an aspen stake or stick. Numerous tales tell of witches flying to the Sabbath. On the eve of Walpurgis Night (May 1), the witch smeared herself with mole fat and flew out through the chimney, pronouncing the spell: “I’m flying out, you’re flying, I’m not touching anything.” Getting to the gathering place, the witch used a shovel, a broom, a poker, a scythe, a pitchfork, a chair, a stick, and a horse skull. She also flew on a magpie and on animals (a horse or a boar). The places for the sabbath (gathering) of witches were “bald” mountains (on which there was no forest or only isolated trees grew). Road intersections and large stones also became such places. Having gathered, we feasted, worshiped the ox in the form of a goat, and plotted our own intrigues. It was believed that a witch could cause harm even after death. Therefore, she should have been buried face down or driven into the coffin with an aspen stake. The Witcher Unlike the witch, the witcher is a character exclusively in Eastern Slavic demonology. His image also combines the features of a folklore character and the features of a representative of evil spirits, borrowed from Christian demonology. Therefore, the witcher had two souls - human and demonic, which, in turn, determined the multifunctionality of the witcher’s actions: he remained hostile to the person or was friendly towards him. It was believed that the witcher looked like a man with a small tail with four hairs growing on it. He had an “evil eye”; if a person looked directly into his eyes, he could get sick and even die. The witcher saw the outside world upside down. He could quietly remove a person's eyes and then return them to their place or replace them. In most fairy tales, the witcher acts in concert with the witches - he harms people, casting spells on them, takes milk from cows, turns people into wolfhounds. He himself can turn into a horse, a wolf and even a moth. At the same time, there are beliefs according to which the witcher committed good deeds, conspired to cure pagan diseases, curing people and animals. The Witcher was also distinguished by his organizational abilities. He knew all the witches and wizards in the area and could control them. The Ukrainian tale tells how a witcher saves his son, bewitched by a witch. He goes to Bald Mountain and defeats all the witches there, including the most important one - the Kyiv one. Like the witch, the witcher melts at the Sabbath. Sometimes he leads all the witches there. Then the witcher is given the traditional functions of the devil, and the witches must report to him. The Witcher also teaches young witches and prevents them from harming people too much. Some tales say that witchers gather separately from witches at crossroads or on the Red Mountains. Before death, a witcher is obliged to transfer his power and knowledge to another person, but he continues to act after death, and most often for the benefit of people. It was believed that the witcher guards his village, keeping the dead and ghouls out. However, if the appropriate measures are not taken in time, after death the witcher himself may become a ghoul. To prevent this from happening, the deceased witcher had to be cut off, placed face down in a coffin, or driven into the grave with an aspen stake. Veles (Volos) In Slavic mythology, Veles is the god of livestock. Traces of the cult of Veles & Vlasiy were preserved in all places where the Slavs settled; idols and sanctuaries of the god were found during excavations. It is known that in Kyiv on Podol there was a large idol of Veles, in front of which protective and propitiatory rites were regularly performed. Veles is also mentioned in documents. In particular, in the text of the trade agreement with the Greeks from 907, Veles acts as a guarantor on the part of the Russians. His name is named in the “Tale of Bygone Years” (XII century) as the patron saint of domestic animals. Vladimir commanded to “throw the hair of the idol named after him, like a cattle god, into the Pochaina River.” Perhaps, as the deity of the lower world, Veles patronized storytellers and singers, apparently for this reason in “The Tale of Igo’s Regiment” Boyan is called “Veles’s grandson.” After the adoption of Christianity, the functions of Veles were transferred to Saint Blaise (obviously due to the correspondence of the names), as well as to Saints Nicholas and George (Yuri). Numerous protective rituals are known that existed until the end of the 19th century. On the day of St. Blaise, called the “cow holiday” in Rus', draft animals were freed from work. Then they prepared a treat consisting of meat dishes, as well as pancakes and pancakes (pancakes so that the oxen were smooth), they were generously poured with butter so that the newborn calves would suck milk well. Part of the treat was brought to the barn and fed to the animals with the words: “St. Veles.” Masks 26 toy Vlasiy, give happiness to smooth heifers, to fat bulls.” In particular, in many places on the field they left a “hair beard”, several uncompressed stalks of cereals tied with ribbon. It was also believed that in case of illnesses in livestock, it was necessary to bring the icon of St. Blaise into the barn. Wind Like other elements, the wind could be evil and good, destructive or beneficial for humans. A small wind blowing in the right direction was needed to carry out a number of economic tasks - sowing, winnowing grain, rotating windmills. A strong wind uprooted trees, destroyed houses and crops, and raised a storm at sea. It was believed that a quiet breeze arises from the blowing of angels, and a strong wind is generated by the devil. The Slavs believed that the winds obey their ruler - Stribog. The four main winds live at the four corners of the earth: north, south, east and west. In fairy tales, the winds are represented in the images of young people. Together with their father or mother, they live Pagans at the end of the world, in a dense forest or on an island in the middle of the sea. From here the winds scatter throughout the world, bringing rain to the earth and enabling ships to sail. The idea of ​​the wind as an animate being led to the appearance of numerous stories about summoning and even inviting the wind. It was believed that the wind could be caused by singing or whistling. In many coastal areas there are stories about how fishermen's wives went to the sea in the evenings. Facing the east, the women sang, turning to the wind. They asked him to blow in the right direction, not to sink or drive ships away from their native shores. In return, they promised to cook porridge and bake pancakes to feed the wind. Millers and sailors turned to the wind and asked for help. They fed the wind by climbing to the top of the mill or mast and throwing up several handfuls of flour. Then the mill or sail was turned in the wind. This is how the expression “harnessing the wind” appeared. So that the wind would not be offended, people made sacrifices to it: 27 characters annually on certain days fed them with bread, flour, cereals, and meat. On major holidays, leftovers from festive dishes were given to the wind. To calm the strong wind, they gave him gifts - they burned old clothes or shoes. There is also a known ritual of dedicating a child to the wind. During hot weather or prolonged drought, take a smartly dressed girl to a high place and gently persuade the wind: “Blow, blow the breeze, we’ll give you Anechka.” In a Latvian wedding song, the following appeal to the wind sounds: Wind, breeze, drive the shuttle, Carry me to Kurzeme, To your beloved bride. It was believed that it was dangerous to offend the wind, since it turned from good to evil, bringing diseases, as well as various evil spirits. But the wind could also carry away diseases, which was asked for in a special appeal “Carry the trash further.” Sometimes they turned to the disease itself: “The wind brought you, let the wind carry you away.” In order not to “give it to the wind,” they buried the straw on which the sick or deceased lay. It was forbidden to dry baby's diapers in the wind, so that the wind would not carry away the child's thoughts or memory. Since ants always gathered in an anthill before bad weather, a belief arose about their connection with the wind. It was believed that the destruction of an anthill would lead to the appearance of a destructive whirlwind. Vechorka, Polunochka and Zorka In Russian fairy tales, this is the name given to the triad of heroes who personify the main stages of the daily solar cycle. Their names are determined by the time of birth. Three big boys were born one after another in one night: the eldest in the evening, the middle one at midnight, and the youngest at dawn. Researchers believe that the images of Zorka, Vecherka and Polunochka passed into the fairy tale from ancient solar myths. Depending on the nature of the connection with the sun, they differ in strength. Vechorka and Polunochka are always inferior to Zorka, who receives strength from the sun. Similar images of triple gods exist in the myths of various peoples of the world: in the plot of the Mahabharata, for example, the race tells of three children of the god Ushas, ​​who performed heroic deeds. In the epics of a number of Caucasian peoples there are twin heroes with analogical names (Budzi and Kudzi). Most of the stories dedicated to such heroes say that when they grow up, they will go in search of the three royal daughters who were kidnapped by the Whirlwind. The heroes reach a dense forest, in the center of which they find a bush. They stop and decide that they will take turns staying home and cooking. When two brothers go hunting, a “little man as big as a fingernail, with a beard as long as an elbow” appears in the hut, beating the remaining brother and taking away the food he had prepared. This continues for two days. On the third day, Zorka remains in the hut, who turns out to be stronger than his brothers. He defeats the old man and, so that he does not run away before the brothers arrive, pinches his beard in an oak stump. However, the old man manages to uproot the stump and escape. The brothers follow in his footsteps and discover that he has disappeared into a “gap,” a deep well or pit. Zorka Pagan descends underground, leaving his brothers to wait for him on the surface. In the underworld, Zorka finds the Old Man, defeats him and frees the princesses taken away by him. This plot often includes motifs from other fairy tales, for example, the story of the three kingdoms or the battle with monsters on the Kalinov Bridge. In the Russian fairy tale epic, it is one of the most archaic plots. Whirlwind A strong wind that is dangerous to humans, which can swirl in one place and lift people, animals and objects into the air. It was believed that the whirlwind was formed by crowds of various evil spirits: demons, devils, witches, and sometimes goblin. They somersault, dance, fight in a powerful air current. This presentation reflected specific observations. It is known that a whirlwind rushing across a field resembles a column of dust in which pieces of straw, leaves, and plant branches are carried. Popular fantasy saw in their flickering people, animals, and strange creatures 29 characters with chicken paws instead of legs. A similar dance was colorfully described by A.S. Pushkin in his poem “Demons” (1831): Endless, ugly, In the muddy game of the month Various demons swirled, Like leaves in November... How many are there, where are they driven, Why do they sing so pitifully? Do they bury the brownie, or marry off the witch? The whirlwind was also represented as an anthropomorphic creature with a huge head and grinning mouth. Its main feature is its destructive activity: it can uproot trees, rip roofs off houses, and scatter hay stacked in stacks. It was believed that the Whirlwind comes from the other world. Due to constant hostility towards man, he is ranked among the representatives of evil spirits. The whirlwind could bring illness, cause damage, or even cause paralysis. To protect against the Whirlwind, they used amulets: tying a rope in a storm, consecrating a knife on Easter, and pronouncing special spells. To drive away the whirlwind, they sprinkled holy water scooped from an ice hole on Epiphany into the furiously rotating column, or threw a sharply sharpened consecrated knife. If he was covered in blood, then they believed that the Whirlwind was wounded along with the evil spirits rushing inside him. According to numerous tales, demons could be seen. To do this, one had to bend down and look at the vortex back between the legs, from under the left shoulder, or through the turned out sleeve of clothing. In the same way one could see the witches rushing in a whirlwind. The destruction left by the whirlwind was also considered unclean. Uprooted trees, broken ears of corn in the fields, as well as “witches’ brooms” (branches that grew into a tangle) and even an ordinary mat on the head were considered to be the product of evil spirits. Water In popular belief, one of the main elements of the universe. Since ancient times, people have been aware of the enormous importance of water. It was considered the source of life and at the same time had enormous destructive power. Therefore, in relation to water, two feelings have always been combined - fear and gratitude. In the overwhelming majority folk customs water exists as an image endowed with positive semantics. Hence the corresponding affectionate characteristics - “sweetheart”, “pure”, “mother” or definitions - “water”, “God’s sister”, “water is the queen”. Over time, a dual view of water developed. On the one hand, water was seen as a means of purification and at the same time they were looking for a source of strength in it. In Russian fairy tales, for example, water could be either alive or dead. On the other hand, water was considered as a kind of border between the human world and the “other world.” The idea that after death a person’s soul is immersed in water also comes from ancient times. It was through water that in most mythological systems the path to the afterlife passed, where the souls of the dead and various evil spirits lived. In particular, there is a well-known custom of funerals by sending the deceased across the water in a boat, into which objects and food intended for the pagan deceased were placed. To this day, the custom of throwing out all the water in the house after the death of a person has been preserved. The numerous functions of water were due to the antiquity of the rituals associated with it; over time, they combined the archaic ideas that animated it, as well as later Christian beliefs based on the cleansing function of water. The ancient Slavs poured out sources of deity, believing that in these places its power comes out of the earth. Therefore, the water from the source was considered healing and was used as a talisman against forces hostile to man. This is also where the custom of dousing yourself with water comes from before some difficult task or before a wedding. An old wish has been preserved: “Be as healthy as water.” Man's fear of the raging elements was reflected in the belief that mermen, mermaids and devils live in water. The following sayings are common: “Where there is water, there is trouble,” “The devil is afraid of fire, but lives in water.” To prevent devils from getting into the water intended for food or drinking, the characters should have covered it with cross-shaped straws. When collecting water from a stream or going for a swim, certain actions had to be followed: throw pieces of bread into the water or leave food on the shore, and also turn to the water with a respectful greeting. When entering the water, they addressed the devil directly, saying: “The devil is out of water, and I’m into the water.” Coming out of the water, they said: “I am from the water, and the devil is in the water.” After the spread of Christianity, the veneration of water was preserved, organically entering into the Christian cult, which already included the ritual rite of baptism. The cleansing function of water was reflected, in particular, in the rite of Blessing of Water. The water taken from the ice hole on this day was considered healing, and it was kept in the house throughout the year. In some places, water sanctification was also performed on other holidays: on the eve of Easter, on the Day of the Nativity of John the Baptist. They believed that the water taken from the springs on Christmas, Candlemas and Holy Thursday had miraculous and even magical properties. They washed their faces with this water, gave water to the sick and livestock, and used it for magical actions. In an effort to save the cattle from diseases or from the machinations of the courtyard, they sprinkled holy water in the corners of the barn. Instead, it was possible to take water, which the brownie himself endowed with magical powers. To get it, you had to put several coals taken from under the stove, where the brownie usually lived, into a pot of water. This water was supposed to be sprinkled on the corners of outbuildings, as well as beehives and the entrance to the bathhouse. Water was also used as a talisman. Small children were doused with water, saying the spell: “Water is off a duck’s back, but thinness is on (name).” There is a famous legend in which Saint Peter splashes water behind his back. It was believed that as many drops fall, as many devils will die. Traces of such rituals are preserved in the rituals of washing newborns, as well as the dead. To protect against the evil machinations of the dead, after removing the body, the floor and furniture in the house had to be washed. To ensure a safe return, holy water was sprinkled after the person leaving the house. Water was also widely used for fortune telling. To see the future, one was supposed to look into a vessel with water or at the surface of a river. If the water remained clear, then the prediction was considered favorable. Otherwise, they talked about imminent illness or even death. This ritual is reflected in the saying “Like looking into water.” To determine the character of the future husband, a stone was thrown into the water. If there was a splash when falling, it was believed that the husband would be grumpy. If the stone fell quietly, then the character of the future spouse should have been calm. There was also a custom of feeding water: throwing a specially baked cookie into it, they asked for help in upcoming affairs or to contribute to an upcoming wedding. During the fortune telling, the girls threw a wreath onto the water. If the river carried him away, then the girl was waiting for matchmakers. The Water Spirit of Water, one of the main representatives of Slavic demonology, personified the power of the hostile Pagan water element to man. In the image of the merman, the most ancient ideas of various cults merged: pagan and Christian features complemented each other and formed into the image of a mysterious river spirit. This is also where its various names come from: “waterman”, “water master”, “water darling”, “ashbird”, “hairy”. Stories and beliefs about the merman are widespread in Belarus and in the north-west of Russia, i.e. in areas with many natural bodies of water. It was believed that the merman lives in every lake, river, and pond. Most often, the merman was represented as a tall man or an ugly, bald old man, entangled in mud, with a long gray or green beard and a large belly. Usually he was surrounded by female spirits: waterwort and ru) salki. Often the merman was inspired by the traits of other evil spirits, most often the devil. Hence the numerous descriptions of the merman as a creature with horns or long clawed paws. Like other representatives of evil spirits, the merman had the ability to transform into a fish, horse, pig, cow or dog. characters According to beliefs, there was a water vein in the deepest places: river whirlpools, whirlpools, mill dams. It was believed that the waterman’s estate was located under the water, in the dark depths. It reminds one of a rich peasant house. True, the domestic animals living there are always only black in color. A similar indirect indication of belonging to an evil spirit is also evident in the custom of sacrificing black animals to the merman: a goat or a rooster. They say that the water man has a family - the water woman’s wife and the water woman’s children. Vodyaniha looks like an ugly woman with huge breasts. In some places it is believed that in the spring, when rivers flood, mermen celebrate weddings. Since water oil represented an element hostile to man, they tried to placate him in all sorts of ways. Since the millers were closest to the waterman, they annually presented the waterman with a black pig. During the construction of the dam, a horse skull was buried in the bottom of the river, which was supposed to protect the mill from the mischief of the waterman. 33 The fishermen also tried in every possible way to please the “water grandfather”. Therefore, part of the first catch was thrown back into the water, saying: “Take, grandfather, a gift!” Before entering the water, they asked the waterman for permission: “Master, mistress, save me!” So that) not to disturb the waterman, but) whose it was forbidden to take water from the river. If they took it, they asked permission: “Master and hostess, allow me to take the water.” Since the waterman was known as an avid smoker, he was often given a pinch of tobacco, which was thrown into a whirlpool or under a mill wheel. There are numerous stories that tell how in the evenings a merman would sit on the shore of a mill pond with a pipe in his mouth. It is curious that the merman was also revered as the patron saint of bees. This idea probably reflected the dependence of beekeeping on weather conditions and, above all, on dampness and rain. It is known that prolonged rains prevented bees from collecting honey and could lead to the death of hives. In order for the merman to take care of the bees, it was necessary to give him 34 fresh honey, not yet taken out of the honeycomb. The image of the merman was often used by writers (in) N.V. Gogol’s “May Night or the Drowned Woman”, 1830) In a somewhat caricatured form, it is found in some works of the twentieth century, in particular in “Naughty Tales” by I. Lada (1956), the story by O. Proysler “The Little Waterman” "(1965). Air One of the four elements of the universe. In ancient Slavic ideas, air was primarily considered as a medium through which damage was caused or disease was spread. It was believed that such air appears in moments of complete calm, as well as on moonless nights or during a lunar eclipse. Anyone who found himself on the street at that time should fall face down on the ground so as not to inhale unclean air. With the adoption of Christianity, the view of air changed. It began to be seen as the place where the human soul resides. It was believed that after the pagan death of a person, the soul leaves the body and becomes invisible. For forty days the soul is in the air, after which it rises to heaven, where the Lord God himself determines its future fate. Therefore, after forty days, it is customary to organize a wake for the deceased and be sure to place food on the grave. At the same time, the soul is greeted with a special spell: “The body is in the hole, the soul is with us, we are going home, the soul is going up the mountain.” According to another belief, also associated with funeral rituals, steam rises from a recent burial, taking on the image of a woman in a white dress or the deceased himself. This ghost is extremely dangerous; in search of a bodily shell, it can chase people and even kill them. To escape from such a spirit, one had to run against the wind or raise the pectoral cross (white scarf) towards the wind. The air was considered the seat of evil spirits. They believed that demons and witches danced in the rapidly rotating whirlwind, and illnesses were hidden in the clouds of fog. According to numerous tales, a witch could drink a miraculous liquid or smear herself with magical ointment, after which she would become light as a feather and invisible. She could freely fly through the air or go to the Sabbath. In popular Orthodoxy, the air was considered as the location of demons who sought to cause minor troubles to people. An invisible demon could land on a person's left shoulder. Then it was necessary to turn to the guardian angel, who was on the right shoulder and remained invisible. Traces of this idea are preserved in the custom of spitting over the left shoulder. It was believed that this could ward off evil spirits. Dazhdbog (Dazhbog) God of the Sun among the ancient Slavs. In ancient Russian sources he is mentioned together with Stribog, who personified the clear sky. The Tale of Bygone Years (1144) says that the main sanctuary of Dazhdbog was located in Kyiv, on a high hill. The Slavs believed that Dazhdbog was the son of one of the main deities - Sva)rog. They saw in the Sun the source of enormous creative power, on which their well-being depended. This is where the name of God comes from - “the one who gives people well-being.” Perhaps this is why Dazhdbog was considered the patron saint of the entire Russian people. It is known that in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” main character The work is respectfully called “Dazhdboz’s grandson.” To this day, traces of belief in Dazhdbog have been preserved in Ukrainian folk songs, where he was portrayed as the patron of weddings. One Ukrainian song, in particular, tells how the groom meets Dazhdbog on the way to the wedding and asks for his protection. The symbol of the sun on ritual bracelets of the 12th–13th centuries. 36 In the spring, the main holiday associated with the glorification of Dazhdbog was celebrated. The Slavs believed that it was Dazhdbog who met the Sun and brought it to earth. The nightingale was mentioned as Dazhdbog's assistant. According to legend, he brought the keys to Dazhdbog so that he would lock Winter and feast Summer. Yard A domestic spirit that lived in the yard. Like the brownie, the yard served as the patron of all livestock. The description of the courtyard combines the traditional features of the brownie and the werewolf, taken from Christian demonology. Outwardly, the courtyard looked like a man, but his legs were those of a chicken, goat or cat. According to other stories, the courtyard looked like a snake with a rooster's head and comb. At night he could take on the appearance of the owner of the house. The residence of the courtyard was considered to be a specially suspended stool or spruce branch with densely overgrown needles. Since the yard man was a nocturnal creature, he did not like anything light. Having bought a Pagan white horse, it was led into the yard backwards or through a sheepskin coat spread out at the gate. If he didn’t like the horse, then he didn’t take care of it, the animal began to lose weight, waste away, and often found itself covered in perspiration in the morning. They tried to sell such cattle, otherwise the yard servant could kill it. Sometimes, to protect themselves from the yard, they resorted to the help of a brownie or hung a killed magpie in the stable (in the barn). It was believed that it would scare away the evil spirit. They always tried to appease the courtyard with numerous offerings. On major holidays, he was left with treats, and when moving to a new place, he was respectfully invited to follow his family. Note that the brownie and the yard are twin characters, and in many areas they are not distinguished. House spirit The house spirit is the guardian of the home and family. Initially, the guardian of the house was considered to be the deceased ancestor - the founder of the clan, the first owner of the ancestral house. The Slavs believed in such spirits even during pagan times. Over time, individual traits were lost, and from the ancestor of the house, the house turned into a house spirit - a guardian. He is also called by his place of “residence” – “golbechnik”, “baker-maker”, “under) stove-maker”, and respectfully – “from) the Byanoy highway”, “grandfather”, “well-wisher”, “shaggy landlady”, “breadwinner” " That is why in most epics and fairy tales the house has a human form. Usually the brownie was represented as a small old man with a silver-white beard, large hands and bare feet. This kind of thing is found among most European peoples. In rare cases, a brownie is compared to a tree: “A frightened woman emerges, as tall as a hundred-year-old birch tree, her head is like a scattered shock of hay, a tuft to the right, a tuft to the left, a tangle sticks out from there, like a rolling field, and entwined with thistles.” long hair, and burning eyes that just stare.” On the other hand, the brownie was also characterized negatively, emphasizing his affiliation with evil spirits - “dashing”, “the other half”, “not his spirit”, “licious”, “domovoy devil”, “unclean” " Usually there were two types of brownies. One was the elder, who lived in the corner behind the stove, the second was considered the yard servant, who lived outside the hut. In their distinction one can see the traditional opposition: house - yard. The house was considered “one’s own” territory, and everything that was outside its boundaries was considered someone else’s. Domozhil always helped the owner, he had a family, a housewife, or housewife, and children. In some stories, the brownie's wife was called ki)kimora. The brownie was highly respected, on holidays he was given refreshments, the owner of the house himself invited him to share the meal, almost) the brownie. Rice. AND I. Bilibin 38 specifically called “breadwinner”, “master” and “grandfather”. In the last appeal, the most ancient belief was preserved, according to which the deceased ancestor of the family became a brownie. That is why anthro-pomorphic features predominate in the image of a brownie. During archaeological excavations, scientists have repeatedly found small figurines or schematic drawings on birch bark depicting brownies. The finds clearly show human features. Usually the brownie lived in the house or in outbuildings, in dark corners or under the stove. Sometimes the brownie lived in a stable, since horses were his favorite animals. The kind brownie carefully looked after them, combed their manes, and provided them with the best food. The brownie, offended by the owner, starved the horses, frightened them, or even sent some kind of disease to them. Before buying a horse, the thrifty owner went into the stable and asked the housekeeper what color the horse should be. The owner not only brought the newly purchased horse into the stable, but also necessarily “introduced” it to the brownie, begging him to take care of it as well as other animals. If the horse was liked, the brownie would help the owner and look after it. Sometimes the brownie didn’t like the horse, and then he tried to survive it - he didn’t give it food, scared it, and sent it sick. In addition to horses, the brownie was especially fond of the rooster, which was considered the “master of the house.” To drive an evil brownie out of the house, they often used a rooster, sweeping its wing around all corners of the hut and yard. During the construction of a new house, after laying the first row of logs, a special ritual of driving the house was performed. He was given a treat in the form of a saucer of milk, and then throughout the night he was strictly forbidden to approach the construction site. Otherwise, the future house could be left without a brownie and, therefore, lose a protector who would later protect it from the invasion of evil spirits. The custom of being the first to let a rooster or cat into a new house has survived to this day. It was believed that they would be subject to the machinations of an evil force, characters that could lie in wait for a person in a new home. When moving to a new place, the brownie was specially invited to move with everyone else. Sometimes the brownie was even transported with his belongings. Arriving at the stable with a treat, the owner persuaded the brownie not to leave his family and livestock unprotected. Stories are recorded in various places about how an abandoned or forgotten brownie moans and cries in an empty house. Sometimes he began to play dirty tricks on those who dared to settle in that place. During the housewarming, the brownie was also presented with special food gifts. It was believed that it was best to transfer the brownie to the day of the Beheading of John the Baptist (August 29 / September 11). Arriving at the old barn, the owner took the stake out of the manger and moved it to the new yard with the words: “Father hostess, mother hostess, little de) carcasses! We’re going, and you’re going to come along with us!” If the family was divided - for example, an adult married son moved to a new house, then the family of the brownie was divided - his children moved to a new place. Unlike the domozhil, the courtyard was considered a negative spirit and in function was similar to the barn or bannik. Faith in this spirit is described in the “Life of Theodosius of Pechersk,” a monument of the 12th century: “A monastery monk came to the blessed father of Theodosius and told that in the stable, where cattle are locked up, there is a dwelling for demons. They do a lot of dirty tricks, not allowing the livestock to eat.” The customs associated with the courtyard were of an emphatically protective nature: it was forbidden to stay overnight both in the bathhouse and in the barn; It was not allowed to allow outside animals into the yard, since the animal could take on their appearance. The favorite animal of the yard was a cat (or tom), distinguished by its activity at night. The identification of the yard and the cat is illustrated by a riddle: “How in our country the yard walks with a black head, wears a velvet fur coat, he has fiery eyes, a snub nose, a sticky mustache, sensitive ears, quick legs, tenacious claws . During the day he lies in the sun, tells wonderful fairy tales, wanders around at night, goes hunting.” Sometimes, instead of a cat, the dwarf appears in the complex image of a monster: “The cat is a little bigger, and the body is similar to a cat, but there is no tail. The head is like a man’s, the nose is humpbacked, the eyes are sore, red like fire, and above them there are black, large eyebrows, a wide mouth, and in it two rows of black teeth, a red and rough tongue, hands like in humans, only the claws are curved. All overgrown with hair, it looks like a gray cat, but the legs are human.” The shaggy appearance of a brownie was considered a favorable sign. They believed that in poor houses he was naked. Usually the brownie hides from people, and his appearance foreshadows some important event. If it happens that the housewife leaves, then “the house will not hold on”: the household will fall apart, the livestock will get sick, or one of the family members will die. They also say that before the death of the owner, the brownie appears in his hat. There are many stories about how the house howl warned of misfortune. If he screams under the window, walks around the house - to death, knocks on the window, creaks the door - to a fire, makes noise in the attic - to trouble. In order for the brownie to help run the household, they tried to appease him. Entering the barn, hello) The pagans said: “Good afternoon to you, dear master. Protect me from all evil." When leaving in the evening, they said goodbye: “Look, grandfather brownie, don’t let anyone in.” On major holidays the housekeeper was fed: on New Year Borscht and porridge were taken to the attic, pancakes, a piece of meat and a cup of milk were taken to the fast before Lent and Christmas, and colored eggs were taken to Easter. It was believed that on the day of Eph) Remus the Syrian (February 10) it was his name day. On this day, they left him porridge, colored scraps, and sheep's wool. Kikimora Demonological character, known primarily in Russian folklore. The image of the kikimora combines ideas from different eras. The most ancient layer developed in pagan times and is associated with the veneration of the female deity Mokosha. Another component is related to the belief in the “damned.” A kikimora was a daughter cursed by a parent or a daughter who died before baptism. Therefore, ideas about the appearance of a kikimora are varied - it looks like a small ugly woman with chicken legs, and like a girl with a long braid, naked or dressed in a white, black or red shirt, and like a peasant woman in ordinary attire a married woman, and like a little girl. Kikimora came to the house herself or was “let in.” Thus, a carpenter or stove maker dissatisfied with his remuneration, in order to harm the owner, could vilely live under the matitsa (the main beam of the house) figurine of a kikimora, roughly carved out of wood. Like the brownie, the kikimora lived in a hut. Her appearance in a house or in outbuildings, on a threshing floor, in a barn, in a yard, in a bathhouse was considered an evil omen. It was believed that kiki) mora settled in houses built in a “bad” place, i.e. where a strangled man or an uninveterate dead man was buried. After the housewarming party, the kikimora usually began to harm its owner. In order for her to change her anger to mercy and begin to help the family, abundant offerings were required. If the kikimora began to over-salt the bread, the salt shaker should be tied with a juniper belt. They believed that the kikimora did not like this plant and would not approach it. At the same time, acting as a female spirit, the kikimora patronized all traditionally female occupations: spinning, weaving, and baking. There are widespread stories about how kikimora helped wash dishes, rock children, and bake bread. She usually wove or spun for a good housewife. The negligent mistress of the kikimora ordered) the shaft: she confused the threads, tipped over) the shaft. The kikimora especially carefully watched the girls who were going to get-togethers; she punished the lazy ones with clicks. The noted functions bring kikimora closer to other de) Kikimora. Rice. AND I. Bilibin 42 monologue characters of Russian folklore, in particular with the brownie’s wife. Together with the brownie, the kikimora could take care of livestock, and looked after the chickens at night. Like other household spirits, kikimora predicted the future. She appeared before any important event or the death of one of the family members. Usually, before a disaster, the kimora would rattle the utensils, knock, or cry. The most common talisman against kikimora was considered to be the “chicken god” - a small flat stone with a natural hole. It was hung over the chicken's roost, where the kikimora usually lived. Finding a stone was considered a good sign. The Lord's Prayer also helped. It was believed that on the day of Gerasim Grachevnik (March 17), kikimors become humble. In the Medical Book of the 18th century. There is a conspiracy to expel the kikimora from the house: “Oh, you goy, brownie kikimora, get out of the goryunin’s house as soon as possible.” It is very difficult to get rid of kikimora. In order to destroy a sent kikimora, one had to find a doll or other object, with the help of the pagans who sent it, say prayers, throw it outside the estate or burn it. It was possible, but it would have been possible to put camel hair with dewy incense under the pole. Kostroma In East Slavic mythology - the embodiment of spring and fertility. Usually Kostroma was represented in the form of a beautiful young woman in long white clothes with an oak branch in her hands. She moved along the ground, accompanied by a girl's round dance. With the advent of Kostroma, plants blossomed and pleasant aromas filled the air. The image of Kostroma is associated with the ceremony of seeing off spring in the form of a ritual funeral. In the summer, a number of funerals of Kostroma itself were held. A straw effigy of a woman was specially made for him. Accompanied by a round dance, the effigy was carried around the village, and then buried in the ground, burned at the stake or thrown into the river. It was believed that the following year Kostroma would resurrect and come to earth again, bringing fertility to the fields and plants. 43 characters Kupala The main character of the summer solstice holiday, which took place on the night of June 23-24 / July 7*. Apparently, on this day the ancient Slavs celebrated the holiday of the solar deity. The holiday of Kupala was also associated with the veneration of fire. It was believed that the connection between fire and water personified the dependence of fertility on the bright sun and good watering. The fact that Kupala is indeed the name of a deity is evidenced by the Gustyn Chronicle of the 17th century: “Kupala is commemorated on the eve of the birth of John the Baptist. In the evening, a simple family gathers around him and weaves crowns of edible herbs or roots, girds himself with plants, lights a fire, where they place a green branch, holding hands, turn around the fire, sing their songs, jump over the fire , they sacrifice themselves to the same demon Kupala. And when night passes by, they retreat to the river with great shouting.” It is obvious that the rituals combined the worship of two elements - fire and water. * Accordingly, Kupala was represented in the form of a woman or a man. Preparations for the holiday began several days in advance; a scarecrow dressed in festive clothes was placed in a high place near the village. Offerings were laid out around him, and in the evenings they danced in circles and sang songs: Oh, Ivan was swimming, And he fell into the water, He picked up white tickets, And gave it to all the children, Ivan, Ivan, Go! In the evenings, numerous fires were lit, over which the ritual participants had to jump. It was believed that the higher the jump, the higher the bread would grow in the summer. The fire provided the ritual participants with health and fertility power. Therefore, through Kost) Kupala (summer solstice holiday) The dates of the holidays are indicated according to the old style. Not only girls, but also women who wanted to give birth to a child jumped 44 jumps. When the holiday ended, the effigy of Kupala was drowned in the river or burned. After the adoption of Christianity, the holiday of Kupala was combined with the day of John the Baptist and became known as the Day of Ivan Kupala. It is celebrated among almost all Slavic peoples. In particular, in Latvia, on this day they celebrate the Ligo holiday, the ritual of which is practically no different from the Kupala ritual. The interaction of the two elements is also manifested in swimming games. On Kupala night they jumped over fires and “played in water”: they doused each other. It was believed that the guy would love the girl he would pour water on. Midsummer games were distinguished by their eroticism. Guys and girls walked and swam together, which was prohibited on other days. During games, kisses, caresses, and hugs were allowed. The girl could “play” with whomever she wanted, and jealousy on the part of her constant “suitor” was not allowed. The songs that accompanied the sexual attractions were also quite frank: Pagan Ivan Marya Called to the bath, Bathed for Ivan! Where did Kupala Night spend the night? Under the aspen tree, With Maksimka, Under the nut, With Tereshka. They speak metaphorically about the intercourse of a man and a woman: Oh, how young I am, I was in the garden, Oh how I am behind the head of cabbage, And the head of cabbage screamed, How I am breaking the head of cabbage, Falling the head of cabbage into the furrow, Even though the furrow is narrow, Let’s settle down! Although the night is small, let's have some fun! It was believed that on Midsummer's Day nature reaches its highest point of flowering. Therefore, it was customary to collect medicinal herbs that acquired maximum strength, as well as plants necessary for sorcery and fortune telling. Usually they were collected by women, naked or wearing only shirts with loose hair. For fortune telling, they chose Ivan-da-Marya and compiled a set of “twelve herbs from twelve fields.” De) 45 Vushka characters put it under the pillow to see their betrothed. For divination, they looked for the weeping grass, which expels unclean forces, the overcoming grass, which overcomes all obstacles, the gaping grass, which opens all doors and locks, the elecampane, which helps to bewitch a loved one, the revaka, which protects “on the waters.” " Since collecting herbs was considered unclean, they had to be blessed in the church or secretly taken to the temple and the spell read: “Be afraid of the evil demons, the old witches of Kyiv. Drown them in tears, lock them in the pits of hell, keep my words with you firmly and firmly. Amen. Age of centuries! It was believed that on the day of Ivan Kupala, evil spirits actively manifest themselves. Therefore, Kupala night was considered the most favorable time for searching for treasures, which became visible for a short period of time. The treasures served as a kind of bait, with which demons and devils caught gullible people. A fantastic fern flower served as a talisman against evil spirits. They believed that it blooms in the middle of the night, in a deep forest, where one cannot hear the crow of a rooster. The person who manages to pick it will know the language of animals and birds, will see the power of plants, he will become aware of all the treasures, he will be able to turn into invisible. To get a wonderful flower and protect yourself from evil spirits, you had to come to the forest, sit on the ground, draw a circle around yourself and not move from the place, no matter how frightening the gathered evil spirits might be. Having picked a blossoming flower, one should make the sign of the cross on oneself and, without looking back, leave. The symbols and plots of Kupala rituals were repeatedly used in literary works (in N.V. Gogol’s story “The Night on the Eve of Ivan Kupala”, A. Mits)kiewicz’s poem “Dziady”). Lada Family deity, widespread in Slavic folklore. The most important goddess of the Slavic pantheon. Researchers have long believed that Lada is one of two birth goddesses. The roots of their origin) Lada (Zbruch idol) 46 Pagan religions are hidden in ancient times. Similar deities are found in the pantheons of almost all Indo-European peoples. M.V. Lomonosov compared Lada with Venus. To this day, in many places the ritual of the maiden's holiday, lyalnik, has been preserved. During it, the girls praised the great deity and asked Lada good husband and have a happy married life. People also turned to her after marriage and asked for personal benefits and protection. This is evidenced by the constant epithet of the goddess – “guardian”. The name Lada has always been accompanied by respectful epithets - Diva (Dido))Lada, Mati)Lada. The special status of Lada led to the multiplicity of holidays dedicated to her; they were celebrated six times a year, from the beginning of March to the end of June. Rituals associated with Lada are usually timed to coincide with the spring/summer cycle of holidays. In particular, it was Lada who was asked for permission to call on spring: Bless, mother Oh, mother, Lada, mother, call on spring. Then the goddess was addressed before the start of summer field work. The rest of the rituals were associated with the spring and summer cycle of prayers for rain, the festive first greenery, the first shoots, the first ears of corn: We pray, Lada, We pray to the highest God, Oh, Lada, oh, Let Lada blow, Let the quiet wind blow, May Lada strike, May the harvest rain strike! During the Red Hill holiday, the girls played the game “And we sowed millet, sowed.” It was held on a hill (red hill). All the players were divided into two groups - one sang about sowing millet, the other that “we will trample down the millet, trample down with what.” Trampling marked the completion of the entire cycle of grinding bread. Perhaps it was just such a game that was described by the chronicler, who noted that the Slavs “arranged games between the villages and snatched their wives.” The cycle of glorification of the goddess ended after the beginning of the earing of bread (in June), so the last holiday associated with Lada was the summer solstice. After 47, the characters of the Kupala festivities stop addressing Lada. The researchers also found that Lada was also approached to ensure the well-being of a future marriage. It would often happen that it was in the middle of summer that the decision to enter into a marriage was made, although the wedding took place much later, after the end of field work. Over time, games and zak)lykas dedicated to Lada passed into children's folklore and became games, losing their clear correlation with the ritual. In M. Gorky’s novel “The Case of the Ar) Tamonovs” (1925) there is a complete reproduction of what was preserved at the end of the 19th century. rite of worship of Lada. In fact, Lada, like Lel, belongs to the characters of “armchair” mythology. At a time when ethnography was just beginning to take shape as a science, scientists often saw the names of gods where they actually did not exist. The word from the chorus of the widespread girl's song And we sowed millet, sowed millet, Dido)lado sowed, sowed turned into the name of God. But since this name has entered Russian culture, we considered it necessary to talk about it in a separate article. Lel Spring deity of the ancient Slavs. In folk songs, Lel is a female character, and the main participants in the holiday dedicated to him were girls. The holiday "Lelnik" was usually celebrated on April 21, on the eve of Yuriev's day (Egoria's day). These days were also called “Red Hill”, since the scene of action was a hill located not far from the village. There, installing a small wooden or turf bench. They put a girl on it, who played the role of Lyalya (Leli). The semantics of the holiday is connected with the fact that St. George’s Day was the day of the first cattle pasture in the field. Similar holidays exist among a variety of peoples in Europe. In Italy they celebrate Primavera - the day of the first greenery; in Greece, since ancient times, they have been celebrating the return to earth of Persephone, the daughter of the fertility goddess Demeter. During the “Lelnik” celebration, offerings were placed on the bench to the right and left of 48 Pagan girls on the hill. On one side there was a loaf of bread, and on the other side there was a jug of milk, cheese, butter, egg and sour cream. Wok) around the bench, the girls laid out the wreaths they had woven. The girls danced around the bench and sang ritual songs in which they glorified the deity as a nurse and giver of the future harvest. While dancing and singing, a girl sitting on a bench put wreaths on her friends. Sometimes after the holiday, a fire (ole) was lit on the hill, around which they also danced in circles and sang a song: Lel burn, live, give birth, It’s fun for us, Lel has come, And brought spring to us. It is significant that the rituals dedicated to Lelya always lacked the funeral motif present in other summer holidays, for example, Rusalnaya Week and Ivan Kupala Day. Sometimes two girls, personifying women in labor, took part in the holiday dedicated to Lel. Probably, in this series the ancient idea has been preserved that the goddess of fertility in most myths is, as it were, divided into two characters. Echoes of this myth are preserved in the ancient Greek tale of Demeter and her daughter Persephone. However, over time, the true meaning of the holiday was gradually forgotten, and it turned into an ordinary summer holiday, with which girls celebrated the beginning of spring. Modern people associate the name Lelya with the fairy tale by A.N. Ostrovsky's "Snow Maiden", where Lel is presented in the image of a beautiful young man playing the pipe. In fact, Lel, like Lada, is a character of “armchair” mythology. At a time when ethnography was just beginning to take shape as a science, scientists often saw the names of gods where they actually did not exist. The word from the widespread refrain of the girl’s song And we sowed millet) sowed, Lely) Lely sowed, sowed turned into the name of God. Leshy Master of the forest and animals, the embodiment of the forest as a part of the world hostile to humans. 49 characters Forest spirits similar to the goblin are known in the folklore of other peoples. In Germany he is called Rübetzal, in the Caucasus - Dali, in the Far East - Hanka (forest man). In different regions of Russia, the goblin is also called differently. They say that foresters live in pine forests, and boletuses live in pine forests. In the North, they talk about the owner of mushrooms, moss, and berries. They are managed by Honest Forest. In Belarus, it is believed that in the depths of Pushcha, a huge virgin forest, the forest bush lives. He is shaggy, covered in moss, and as tall as a tall tree. In northern conspiracies, the head of the goblin is called Musa illes. The idea of ​​the owner of the forest goes back to ancient times, which led to the combination of human and animal features in the image of the goblin. He can turn into any animal or bird, but at the same time he is also engaged in traditional human activities - weaving baskets and bast shoes, playing cards, carving spoons. They say that he lives with his wife, a leshikha (other titles are lesovka or forest woman). Outwardly, the goblin looks like a person dressed in an animal skin. It is often endowed with other characteristics of an animal: tail, horns, hooves. A goblin can easily change its height, grow taller than trees or shrink below grass. In the forest, he behaves like a master: he drives animals from place to place, monitors the growth of trees, mushrooms and berries. The goblin is special but closely related to wolves. Like St. George, he is called the wolf's herd. The goblin is always hostile towards humans. Therefore, when getting into the forest, you need to be extremely careful so as not to accidentally find yourself at the mercy of the devil. It can frighten, lead into a remote thicket, or kill a hunter of prey. Goblins do a lot of digging in the forests) Leshy. Lubok has 50 numerous trails, but you should not walk along them - you can get lost or get sick. There are also stories about how goblins take girls lost in the forest to their place. The goblin is easy to recognize because the left side of his clothes is tucked over the right, his left boot is on his right foot, and his hat is on backwards. He walks through the forest and mutters to himself: “I walked, I found, I lost.” Having recognized the goblin, one had to pronounce a safety spell: “Sheep’s face, whose wool!” When the goblin realized that he had been recognized, he rushed into the bushes and disappeared shouting: “Ah, I guessed it!” It was also believed that every year on October 4, on the day of Erofey, goblins have a kind of holiday: they run through the forest, fight with each other, break trees with a crash and finally fall through the ground to reappear only in the spring. The goblin enjoyed special respect and even honor among hunters. While in the forest, they tried not to make noise and invariably left gifts for the devil in secluded places: not a lot of food or a glass of vodka. When meeting him, they gave him a pinch of tobacco or the entire pouch. Pagans before hunting or picking berries asked for permission: “Master, yushko, help me pick berries and not get lost.” To prevent the devil from touching the children, it was necessary to place a piece of bread wrapped in a clean rag on the stump and say: “King of the forest, accept our gift and low bow, and accept my little children and send them home.” In order not to anger the devil, one was not supposed to make noise or whistle in the forest. When angry, a goblin can “circle” a person, i.e. make you wander through the forest, lead you into a quagmire, or pull off your hat. The mother of cheese is the earth. According to popular beliefs, one of the main components of the universe (together with water, air and fire). The earth was considered the embodiment of the reproductive power of nature, which is why it was likened to a woman. The land fertilized by rain yielded crops, fed people, and helped continue the family line. Therefore, in conspiracies the formula was often used: “Earth is the mother, heaven is the father,” for example: “God thou, raw characters, earth, mother! You are our dear mother, you gave birth to us all.” Traces of the deification of the earth were reflected in the most ancient funeral rituals. During archaeological excavations, skeletons were discovered laid in the pose of a newborn. Probably, the funeral was accepted as the return of the deceased to the mother's womb. Echoes of the ritual are also visible in the custom of putting on clean underwear in anticipation of imminent danger or death. This is, in particular, what sailors do during a strong storm. The land that received the deceased was considered miraculous, so those present at the funeral sought to lay their hands on it in order to cleanse themselves of possible future misfortunes. Traces of the ritual have been preserved in our time: during funerals it is customary to throw a handful of earth onto the coffin lowered into the grave. The fertility of the earth and abundant rains depended on the ancestors lying in the ground. They turned to their ancestors for help in a variety of cases. Over time, a custom developed of visiting graves, as well as eating at them, accompanied by the obligatory invitation of 51 ancestors. The custom of presenting Easter eggs to the stones has survived to this day. They also turned to the earth during illness and asked it for healing. There was another custom: if you committed a sin, you could repent in the holy land. The likeness of the earth to a living creature is manifested in the fact that in winter the earth falls asleep, in spring it awakens. After the adoption of Christianity, the image of Mother Earth became closer to the image of the Mother of God, gradually developing into the cult of the Mother of God of the earth, while the suffering of the earth and at the same time her love for man were constantly emphasized. The idea was reflected in the ancient wish for the earth: “Be healthy like a fish, beautiful like water, cheerful like spring, hardworking like a bee and rich like the holy land.” It was believed that the earth had name days, which were celebrated on Spiritual Day. On this day, it was strictly forbidden to plow, harrow, or generally do any earthwork, such as sticking stakes into the ground. The second festival of the earth was celebrated on the day of Simon the Zealot (May 11). Probably his choice of 52 was due to the fact that on May 10, according to the Christian calendar, the spring holiday of Nicholas (Nicholas the Great), who in the folk calendar was considered the patron saint of earthly businessmen, was celebrated. The understanding of the earth as holy was also manifested in the idea that its righteous depths do not accept sorcerers, suicides and criminals. Back in the 19th century. cases were recorded when, during a drought that lasted for several months, drowned people were dug out of the ground. There is also a well-known episode of the epic “Dobrynya and the Serpent,” in which the hero asks the earth to accept the blood of the serpent he defeated in order to prevent him from being reborn. The oath to the earth was considered the most reliable. So, in order to seal the boundary of the site, there was a special ritual: a person put a piece of turf on his head and walked along the boundary with it. The border he laid was considered inviolable and indestructible, since it was protected by the earth itself. In a work of the 11th century. the famous Christian saint Gregory the Theologian recognized the inviolability of this oath. It is connected with reverence for the land, but also the idea of ​​the homeland. Pagan When leaving on a long journey, people often took with them a handful of their native land and carried it on their chest in an amulet as a talisman protecting them from possible misfortunes. In case of death in a foreign land, the earth was placed together with the deceased in the grave. The remains of the ritual have been preserved to this day. Having returned from exile, many kneel down and kiss the ground. It is known that the Pope always does this when he comes to any country for the first time. The mothers of Soviet soldiers who died abroad also scattered soil from their homeland on their graves. Maslenitsa is a pagan holiday dedicated to seeing off the passing winter and the arrival of solar warmth, awakening the fertile power of the earth. In the Christian calendar, the timing of Maslenitsa fluctuated depending on the day of Easter, which was preceded by a seven-week Lent . Maslenitsa was celebrated in the eighth week before Easter. Maslenitsa was represented in the form of a straw effigy, usually dressed in women's clothing. At the beginning of the week, 53 characters, i.e., put him on a sleigh, and drove him around the village with song: Maslenitsa) tortuous, Give us a good ride, Ay lyuli) lyuli, good, Maslenitsa - Kurguzka, After you we will sad... Often the songs were like glorification: they sang about the holy and honest Maslenitsa, Maslenitsa dishes and entertainment: Our annual Maslenitsa, She is a dear guest, She does not come to us on foot, Everyone rides around on komony, So that the horses are black. So that the servants were young... The glorification was usually ironic, Maslenitsa was called a dear guest and was portrayed as a young, elegant woman (Avdotyushka Izotievna, Akulina Savvishna). Then the scarecrow was placed in an open place and celebrations began around it. Each day of Maslenitsa week had its own name: meeting - Monday; for) toy – Tuesday; gourmand - Wednesday yes; revelry, turning point, wide Thursday - Thursday; mother-in-law ve) cherki – Friday; sisters-in-law as nurses - Saturday; farewells, farewells, forgiven day - Sunday. Maslenitsa week itself was called cheese week, syrnitsa. Initially, on Maslenitsa they ate “white” food: milk, butter, sour cream, cheese. Pancakes appeared as a funeral food (depicting the sun, pancakes symbolized the afterlife, which, according to the ancient ideas of the Slavs, correlated with the sun, which descended there at night). The first Maslenitsa pancake was dedicated to deceased ancestors; it was left on the window or taken to the cemetery. Funeral motifs are also reflected in the closeness of the melody of Maslenitsa songs to funeral lamentations. Typical for Maslenitsa are extraordinary feasts, an abundance of dishes, ritual overeating with drinking strong drinks, Maslenitsa. Lubok 54 fun and even revelry symbolized the prosperity that was to come in the beginning of the year. The abundance of fatty (“oily”) food gave the holiday its name. Maslenitsa was considered a holiday of youth and fertile strength, so young married couples were always congratulated at this time. The young were considered welcome guests: they went to visit their father-in-law and mother-in-law, showed themselves to the people in their best clothes (stood in rows on both sides of the village street). They were forced to kiss in front of everyone. The young people had to communicate their vitality to the earth, to “awaken” its maternal principle. Therefore, in many places newlyweds, and sometimes girls of marriageable age, were buried in the snow, in straw, or rolled in the snow with ritual laughter. On Thursday (or Friday) the wide Mas Lenitsa began. At this time they rode down the icy mountains, and later on horses. The festive train in honor of Maslenitsa (a string of cars with horses harnessed to them) in some places ran up to several hundred cars. In ancient times, skating had a special pagan meaning: it was supposed to help the movement of the sun. Fist fights were considered popular entertainment. They usually gathered in groups - entire streets or parts of the village. In the Siberian regions, the game “taking a snow fortress” was popular, which took place on a river or in a field. They built a kind of fortress out of snow with a wall as tall as a man. Young people walked around her, played snowballs, and rode on sleighs. Then the line of sleighs whooped and flew into the snow fortress, showered with a hail of snowballs. On Maslenitsa, costumed bears and goats also walked through the streets; men dressed up as “women” and vice versa. Pets, goats and horses were also dressed up in pants or skirts. Maslenitsa week ended with a “farewell” - with the burning of Maslenitsa. On Sunday, the stuffed animal was carried along the street, then taken outside the village and burned (sometimes thrown into the river or torn and scattered across the field). During the ritual, they sang reproachful songs (and later ditties), in which Maslenitsa was reproached for leaving too quickly and bringing Lent with her: 55 characters And we saw off Maslenitsa We sighed heavily for her: A maslana, maslana, come back, reach out to the Great Day2. Maslenitsa was awarded with offensive nicknames: “wettail”, “wry neck”, “licker”, “pancake eater”. When parting with Maslenitsa, women feigned tears and even performed mock funeral laments. The custom of burning Maslenitsa is connected with the fact that it represents the thief of winter, death, and cold. With the onset of spring, it was necessary to get rid of it: Maslenitsa) wet tail, Get out of the yard. Your time has come! In some places, they did not make effigies; instead, they burned bonfires, which were placed in a high place, and in the middle of them, an old cart wheel was fixed on a pole - when it lit up, it seemed like an image of the sun. The fire circle symbolized the sun and contributed to the arrival of warmth and spring. The day of seeing off Maslenitsa came on Forgiveness Sunday. In the evening of this day, the fun stopped, and everyone asked forgiveness from relatives and friends for their sins in the past year. They tried to make peace between families and apologize for the insults caused. The godchildren visited their godfather and mother. People seemed to be cleansed of insults and filth. In the evening, on the eve of Clean Monday (the first day of Lent), they washed the dishes from fast food and washed in the baths in order to meet the beginning of Lent, which was supposed to last seven weeks, until Easter. Mokosh is the only female deity in the ancient Russian pantheon. Mokosh was usually represented in the form of a woman with a large head and long arms. Her image is found, for example, on embroidery. To date, the main functions of the deity have not been clarified. Probably, initially Mokosh was the goddess of water, rain and was responsible for fertility, but over time the image of Mokosha became associated with traditional women’s occupations - Hardly important - strongly, Great day - Easter. 56 Pagan spinning and weaving. Researchers have established that the name of the goddess goes back to the Indo-European root that began spinning. Gradually, from a cosmic deity, Mokosh turned into the patroness of the house. The peasant women were afraid to anger Mokosh and made sacrifices to her. If Mokosh could be appeased, she would help the spinners and even spin herself at night. The cat could punish the careless housewife: mix up the left tow or start making noise at night. Later, some functions of the Mo)koshi were transferred to the kikimora. With the adoption of Christianity, faith in Mokosh began to be persecuted: having come to confession to the priest, the woman had to answer whether she had gone to Mokosh. In the Christian pantheon, the goddess Mokosh was replaced by the holy great martyr Paraskeva. The temple of Mokosha On the day of remembrance, it received the popular name Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, it was also called Linen. Paraska) ve sacrificed the first sheaves of flax and the first woven pieces of cloth. At the end of the 19th century, when starting work, Ukrainian spinners performed the Mok-rida ritual - they threw pieces of tow into the well. The connection with Mokoshi’s water comes from the external similarity of the name with the Slavic root “wet”. However, the main function of the goddess was still determined by her connection with household work. Navii In Slavic mythology, a collective image of deceased ancestors. Probably, navias were originally the name given to the dead who sailed to the kingdom of the dead on a funeral boat. Navii are invisible and always hostile to humans. Thus, the “Tale of Bygone Years” tells how hordes of invisible Navii attacked Polotsk, and an epidemic broke out there, claiming many lives. A holiday associated with Navia, called Navsky Great, was celebrated on Thursday at 57 characters time Easter week, and also) at the beginning of autumn. It was believed that on this day the Navi come out of their graves and go to their descendants for a funeral meal. For the navi, a special treat was prepared, which was placed on the table in the room, then the windows were opened. In order not to disturb the Navii, it was strictly forbidden to go outside after sunset. A special protective ritual was used against navi. If the navi caused harm, it was necessary to dig up the grave of the deceased and remove from it the “nav bone” - the only bone of the deceased that had not decomposed over time. The point was supposed to be burned, and the point was to be thrown back into the grave. Then Navia will disappear and begin to disturb the living again. Polovtsians are hiding from the “navi” in their mansions. Miniature from the Radzivilov Chronicle (1092) Southern and Western Slavs did not believe that the Navi could determine the fate of a child. They believed that invisible nawis gathered at the bedside of a woman in labor and decided whether the child would live or die. A navyi doomed to death was given an invisible “navy sign.” Over time, the cult of Navii became associated with the veneration of the clan, and even the holiday itself received the name Radunitsa. The image of navy was widely used in Russian literature, in particular, in the works of F. Sologub: in the novel “Drops of Blood” (original title “Navy Chary”) and some stories about children. Barn A mythological character who lives in a barn - a special building where sheaves were dried and bread was threshed. To do this, the sheaves brought from the field were carefully laid in rows, after which a fire was built in a specially dug hole - a crawl space. The heated smoke rose upward and dried the sheaves. After drying was completed, the sheaves were threshed in a barn or a special structure - a threshing floor. The appearance of the barn is characterized by duality: 58 Pagan ones: it combines the features of man and animal. Usually the ovinnik appeared in the form of a huge black cat or dog: “his eyes burn with hot coals, like a cat’s, and he himself looks like a huge cat, all black and shaggy,” but most often he is described as a humanoid creature , covered with long black hair. Ovinnik could only be seen during Bright Matins on Christ's day (Easter). The barn dweller lives in the “podla”, a pit where the barn is heated, together with his wife, the barn-keeper. From there, he makes sure that the sheaves brought from the field are neatly stacked in rows on top of each other, and that the firewood burns evenly and does not produce sparks. To deserve the good) inclination of the guilty man, one had to constantly please him

Fedor Sergeevich Kapitsa

Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals

Preface

Who are the ancient Slavs? When did they live? Currently, there are several hypotheses and versions related to their origin and places of settlement. After the publication of a number of studies, in particular, the works of M. Gimbutas, recently presented to the Russian reader for the first time, it became clear that our previous ideas are far from complete, although a lot has been done in the history of the study of our ancestors.

Moving away from the biased and one-sided sociological studies of previous years, attracting the works of both domestic and Western scientists, today we are restoring a more complete and detailed history of the life of the ancient Slavs, learning how they gradually moved further and further to the north and west. They eventually managed to populate a vast area in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula. It was not easy, the Slavs practically followed the same path that the ancient Chinese had taken in their time, gradually establishing their own state.

Assimilating in new lands, the Slavs over time streamlined the system of intertribal organization, built relationships with neighbors, and determined their internal way of life. Clarifying the features of the world order of the ancient Slavs, the author of the reference book intends to introduce the reader to the world of Slavic mythology: to introduce the ancient gods, mythological characters, holidays, rituals, basic concepts and symbols of folk spiritual culture. He also wants to show how elements of the gradually established Christianity entered into popular life.

The process was two-way in nature, and traces of ancient beliefs were reflected in church literature, icon painting, and even liturgical practice. Often (especially in ritualism) they are expressed even more clearly than the actual Christian ideas. Of course, the author of this book understands that such research should become the subject of major scientific work. The proposed reference book takes one of the steps in this direction, identifies the main trends in the existence of two layers of Russian culture and highlights the most significant features. Note that for a number of years such issues were excluded from the scope of scientific research.

It is obvious that the system of beliefs of each people develops over a long time and depends on various historical, social and personal factors. A feature of Slavic mythology was contamination, the combination of different components. One of them was “paganism” - a huge complex of primitive beliefs, views and rituals that developed in time immemorial and became the basis on which the main world religions were later formed.

The Eastern Slavs, like other European peoples, had a detailed system of beliefs and ideas about the supernatural world. Its roots go back to Indo-European antiquity.

The term “paganism” comes from the word “pagans,” i.e. peoples, foreigners who have not yet accepted Christianity. Often, instead of the concept of “paganism”, another term “polytheism” (“polytheism”) is used. Such use of terms seems inaccurate, since they reflect two different levels of knowledge of the world: paganism is based on the spiritualization of the nature surrounding man, and polytheism is based on the belief in the existence of a vast host gods.

Like other religions, Slavic paganism reflected the desire of people to understand the world around them. Ancient man likened objects and phenomena to living beings, endowing them with soul and character. He believed that trees and stones, water and air were inhabited by good or evil spirits. Therefore, a person performed any action as if in the presence of mysterious supernatural forces. Among them were both pagan deities (Perun and Veles, Dazhdbog and Mokosh, Stribog and Hore) and mythological creatures (mermaids, goblins, brownies, fantastic animals and birds).

Supernatural beings could both help and harm a person. This means that they had to be won over by making appropriate sacrifices, while performing ritual dances and songs. So-called magical rituals became a form of communication with supernatural beings. Unlike religious rituals, they were not aimed at achieving any specific result; most often, people simply sought to ward off or scare away hostile forces.

Sometimes they were asked for personal well-being, a cure for an illness, or the creation of favorable conditions for a future harvest. This is how the first rituals arose, which accompanied a person’s entire life from birth to death. Over time, many rituals lost their magical meaning and turned into games that have survived to this day.

The animation of the other world led to the emergence of polytheism, each specific phenomenon was associated with the name of one or another god. A classic example of such a polytheistic system is the religion of Ancient Greece, in which there were several dozen gods, seemingly responsible for the most diverse aspects of everyday life.

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Who are the ancient Slavs? When did they live? Currently, there are several hypotheses and versions related to their origin and places of settlement. After the publication of a number of studies, in particular, the works of M. Gimbutas, recently presented to the Russian reader for the first time, it became clear that our previous ideas are far from complete, although a lot has been done in the history of the study of our ancestors.

Moving away from the biased and one-sided sociological studies of previous years, attracting the works of both domestic and Western scientists, today we are restoring a more complete and detailed history of the life of the ancient Slavs, learning how they gradually moved further and further to the north and west. They eventually managed to populate a vast area in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula. It was not easy, the Slavs practically followed the same path that the ancient Chinese had taken in their time, gradually establishing their own state.

Assimilating in new lands, the Slavs over time streamlined the system of intertribal organization, built relationships with neighbors, and determined their internal way of life. Clarifying the features of the world order of the ancient Slavs, the author of the reference book intends to introduce the reader to the world of Slavic mythology: to introduce the ancient gods, mythological characters, holidays, rituals, basic concepts and symbols of folk spiritual culture. He also wants to show how elements of the gradually established Christianity entered into popular life.

The process was two-way in nature, and traces of ancient beliefs were reflected in church literature, icon painting, and even liturgical practice. Often (especially in ritualism) they are expressed even more clearly than Christian ideas themselves. Of course, the author of this book understands that such research should become the subject of major scientific work. The proposed reference book takes one of the steps in this direction, identifies the main trends in the existence of two layers of Russian culture and highlights the most significant features. Note that for a number of years such issues were excluded from the scope of scientific research.

It is obvious that the system of beliefs of each people develops over a long time and depends on various historical, social and personal factors. A feature of Slavic mythology was contamination, the combination of different components. One of them was “paganism” - a huge complex of primitive beliefs, views and rituals that developed in time immemorial and became the basis on which the main world religions were later formed.

The Eastern Slavs, like other European peoples, had a detailed system of beliefs and ideas about the supernatural world. Its roots go back to Indo-European antiquity.

The term “paganism” comes from the word “pagans,” i.e. peoples, foreigners who have not yet accepted Christianity. Often, instead of the concept of “paganism”, another term “polytheism” (“polytheism”) is used. Such use of terms seems inaccurate, since they reflect two different levels of knowledge of the world: paganism is based on the spiritualization of the nature surrounding man, and polytheism is based on the belief in the existence of a vast host gods.

Like other religions, Slavic paganism reflected the desire of people to understand the world around them. Ancient man likened objects and phenomena to living beings, endowing them with soul and character. He believed that trees and stones, water and air were inhabited by good or evil spirits. Therefore, a person performed any action as if in the presence of mysterious supernatural forces. Among them were both pagan deities (Perun and Veles, Dazhdbog and Mokosh, Stribog and Hore) and mythological creatures (mermaids, goblins, brownies, fantastic animals and birds).

Supernatural beings could both help and harm a person. This means that they had to be won over by making appropriate sacrifices, while performing ritual dances and songs. So-called magical rituals became a form of communication with supernatural beings. Unlike religious rituals, they were not aimed at achieving any specific result; most often, people simply sought to ward off or scare away hostile forces.

Sometimes they were asked for personal well-being, a cure for an illness, or the creation of favorable conditions for a future harvest. This is how the first rituals arose, which accompanied a person’s entire life from birth to death. Over time, many rituals lost their magical meaning and turned into games that have survived to this day.

The animation of the other world led to the emergence of polytheism, each specific phenomenon was associated with the name of one or another god. A classic example of such a polytheistic system is the religion of Ancient Greece, in which there were several dozen gods, seemingly responsible for the most diverse aspects of everyday life.

Having gone through a long period of development in the ancient world, in different cultures, similar systems by the beginning of our era included many gods, distributed by rank (higher and lower gods and heroes). With the development of writing, they began to take shape in the form of cycles, which gradually led to the creation of national epics (“Elder Edda”),

The mythological beliefs of the Slavs were fundamentally different from the mythologies of other European peoples. The Slavs began to form as an ethnic group only in the 4th–6th centuries, therefore, by the time of the adoption of Christianity in the 9th century. pagan ideas did not yet represent a coherent system, and the pantheon of the highest gods was just beginning to take shape; beliefs in individual gods continued to exist even after the introduction of official religion. In addition, mythology existed only in oral form, since before the adoption of Christianity the Slavs did not have a written language. At one time M.V. Lomonosov wrote: “We would have many fables, like the Greeks, if the Slavs had science in idolatry.”

Unlike paganism, later religions - Christianity, Islam, Buddhism are based on belief in one God, in a single supernatural force that governs the entire universe. They are called monotheistic (from the Greek “monos” - one). But in fact, both they and paganism are based on the same principle - man endows nature with supernatural power, the great unknowable spirit that gives birth to all living things and plunges them into death.

After the spread of Christianity, despite the existence of writing, pagan beliefs were not written down, but became the object of denunciation, although, as noted, it was not possible to completely eradicate ancient traditions. They continued to exist in oral tradition. Today, in order to get an idea of ​​Slavic mythology, we have to use indirect data. The information given in the surviving works of ancient and Byzantine historians is rather meager and often not accurate. The ancient authors did not seek to penetrate the peculiarities of the life and customs of the Slavs, assessing what they saw from the position of an ill-informed outside observer.

Let us dwell on the organization of the process of veneration of deities. The deification of natural phenomena was not expressed in specific rituals and rites; it was rather spontaneous in nature and was perceived as simple veneration. The later stage was based on the veneration of images of deities or idols and was based on complex rituals and a system of sacrifices.

The personification of the gods, or pagan piety, and the establishment of a system of sacrifices required the organization of places of worship, with each god being rewarded according to the place he occupied in the pantheon. Sacrifices were made to the domestic gods in the family circle. Magnificent ceremonies were dedicated to the main (common clan) gods, in which many people participated. Typically, such holidays dedicated to the main gods took place over several days and were accompanied by abundant feasts. Rituals were carried out in special places - temples.

F.S. Kapitsa Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals Directory 8th edition, stereotypical Moscow Publishing house "FLINTA" 2011 UDC 391/395(036) BBK 63.5я2 K20 Reviewer Dr. philol. Sciences M.I. Shcherbakova K20 Kapitsa F.S. Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals [electronic resource]: reference book / F.S. Kapitsa. – 8th ed., stereotype. – M.: FLINTA, 2011. – 296 p. ISBN 978-5-89349-308-5 The book consistently and systematically reflects the ideas of the Slavs of pagan times, the early Christian period about the world and its structure, as well as rituals and symbols of Slavic mythology, characters of Slavic fairy tales, folk customs, rituals, holidays and Christian rituals. An explanation is given of the rituals and sacraments that have survived to this day, taking into account the latest achievements of folklore and ethnography. Illustrations from rare and little-known sources are provided. For students and teachers of philology, language arts students, high school students and applicants, as well as everyone interested in the history and culture of Russia. UDC 391/395(036) BBK 63.5я2 ISBN 978-5-89349-308-5 © FLINTA Publishing House, 2011 4 Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and ritual research should become the subject of major scientific work. The proposed reference book takes one of the steps in this direction, identifies the main trends in the existence of two layers of Russian culture and highlights the most significant features. Note that for a number of years such issues were excluded from the scope of scientific research. It is obvious that the system of beliefs of each people develops over a long period of time and depends on various historical, social and personal factors. A feature of Slavic mythology was contamination, the combination of different components. One of them was “paganism” - a huge complex of primitive beliefs, views and rituals that developed in time immemorial and became the basis on which the main world religions were later formed. The Eastern Slavs, like other European peoples, had a detailed system of beliefs and ideas about the supernatural world. Its roots go back to Indo-European antiquity. The term “paganism” comes from the word “pagans”, i.e. peoples, foreigners who have not yet accepted Christianity. Often, instead of the concept of “paganism”, another term is used: “polytheism” (“polyte)ism”). Such use of terms seems inaccurate, since they reflect two different levels of knowledge of the world: paganism is based on the spiritualization of the nature surrounding man, and polytheism is based on the belief in the existence of a vast host of gods. Like other religions, Slavic paganism reflected the desire of people to understand the world around them. Ancient man likened objects and phenomena to living beings, endowed them with soul and character. He believed that trees and stones, water and air were inhabited by good or evil spirits. Therefore, a person performed any action as if in the presence of mysterious supernatural forces. Among them were both pagan deities (Perun and Veles, Dazhdbog and Mokosh, Stribog and Khors) and mythological creatures (mermaids, goblins, brownies, fantastic animals and birds). Supernatural beings could both help and harm a person. This means that they had to win over them by making appropriate sacrifices, while performing ritual dances and songs. So-called magical rituals became a form of communication with supernatural beings. Unlike religious rituals, they were not aimed at achieving any specific result; most often, people simply sought to ward off or scare away hostile forces. Sometimes they were asked for personal well-being, a cure for illness, or the creation of favorable conditions for a future harvest. This is how the first rituals arose, which accompanied a person’s entire life from birth to death. Over time, many rituals lost their magical meaning and turned into games that have survived to this day. The animation of the other world led to the emergence of polytheism; each specific phenomenon was associated with the name of one or another god. A classic example of such a polytheistic system is the religion of Ancient Greece, in which there were several dozen gods, seemingly responsible for the most diverse aspects of everyday life. Having gone through a long period of development in the ancient world, in different cultures, such systems by the beginning of our era included many gods, distributed by rank (higher and lower gods and heroes). With the development of writing, they began to take shape in the form of cycles, which gradually led to the creation of national epics (“Elder Edda”). The mythological beliefs of the Slavs were radically different from the mythologies of other European peoples. The Slavs began to form as an ethnic group only in the 4th–6th centuries, therefore, by the time of the adoption of Christianity in the 9th century. pagan ideas did not yet represent a coherent system, and the pantheon of the highest gods was just beginning to take shape; beliefs in individual gods continued to exist even after the introduction of official religion. In addition, mythology existed only in oral form, since before the adoption of Christianity the Slavs did not have a written language. At one time M.V. Lomonosov wrote: “We would have many fables, like the Greeks, if the Slavs had science in idolatry.” Unlike paganism, later religions - Christianity, Islam, Buddhism are based on belief in one God, in a single supernatural force that governs the entire universe. They are called) 6 Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals are monotheistic (from the Greek “monos” - one). But in fact, both they and paganism are based on the same principle - man gives supernatural power to nature, the great unknowable spirit that gives birth to all living things and plunges them into death. After the spread of Christianity, despite the existence of writing, pagan beliefs were not written down, but became the object of denunciation, although, as noted, it was not possible to completely eradicate ancient traditions. They continued to exist in oral tradition. Today, in order to get an idea of ​​Slavic mythology, we have to use indirect data. The information given in the surviving works of ancient and Byzantine historians is rather meager and often lacks accuracy. The ancient authors did not seek to penetrate the peculiarities of the life and customs of the Slavs, assessing what they saw from the position of an ill-informed outside observer. Let us dwell on the organization of the process of veneration of deities. The deification of natural phenomena was not expressed in specific rituals and rites; it was rather spontaneous in nature and was perceived as simple veneration. The later stage was based on the veneration of images of deities or idols and was based on complex rituals and a system of sacrifices. The personification of the gods, or pagan piety, and the establishment of a system of sacrifices required the organization of places of worship, with each god being rewarded depending on the place he occupied in the pantheon. Sacrifices were made to the domestic gods in the family circle. Magnificent ceremonies were dedicated to the main (common clan) gods, in which many people participated. Typically, such holidays dedicated to the main gods took place over several days and were accompanied by abundant feasts. Rituals were carried out in special places - temples. Initially, they were arranged in places that were considered sacred: on high hills, in river bends, near old trees, large stones. When special images of gods became the object of veneration, rituals began to be performed near them. On certain days, sacrifices (including human ones) were made in the temples. After the adoption of Christianity, polytheism was replaced by theism (from the Greek “theos” - god). Accordingly, pagan deities and mi) Preface 7 phological characters received the name “evil spirits.” However, they continued to be believed in, and traces of these beliefs were preserved in many signs, customs and beliefs. Instead of many gods, the subject of cult became a single omnipotent god, who was revered as the creator of all living things. The sacrifice of specific objects or people was replaced by a symbolic, “bloodless” sacrifice, performed only in the minds of believers. At the same time, the more ancient ideas were not forgotten; they entered too deeply into people’s consciousness and into everyday life and could not immediately be replaced by new ones. The pagan beliefs of the Eastern Slavs gradually entered the Christian cult. As a result, the so-called “dual faith” arose, in which pagan ideas were united into a single whole with the dogmas of Christianity so closely that sometimes it is impossible to separate them at all. Let us note that the pagan ideas themselves changed in the process of interaction - some images were forgotten and disappeared, others appeared. When Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian traditions began to form on the basis of a single East Slavic culture, in each of them the common mythological heritage changed in its own way. In addition, beliefs and traditions appeared that were known in a certain area. Thus, the image of a mermaid is known to all Eastern Slavs, but in the Russian North they talk about her differently than in the South or Ukraine. Although pagan deities were not openly recognized, belief in them did not disappear. The familiar images of pagan deities coexisted peacefully with Christian saints. Elijah the Prophet became associated with Perun, the god of thunder and lightning, Saint Nicholas began to be identified with the patron saint of cattle, Veles. Sometimes a purely mechanical transfer of functions occurred, for example, based on the consonance of names: the Christian Saint Blaise became the patron of livestock, taking over his “responsibilities” from the pagan god Veles. Having absorbed the freer and even in some sense amorphous structure of paganism, Christianity subordinated it to its own logic, which manifested itself in the systematization of pagan beliefs. Thus, the ancient Slavs did not distinguish between heaven and hell; they believed in a single afterlife, which could be located somewhere overseas, in heaven, and in the underworld. Under the influence of Christianity, ideas about the “other world” became more defined. The lower, underground world (underworld) began to be perceived as the place of residence of the negative spiritual principle, evil spirits. All places close to the lower world - swamps, pits, ravines, basements - were inhabited by hostile and dark creatures opposing the power of the “godmother”. Accordingly, the upper, heavenly world began to be perceived as the habitat of “righteous and divine forces,” bright, full of holiness. The will of God and God's providence dominate over all beings. The organic fusion of two sets of beliefs was also determined by the coincidence of individual ritual actions. The main ones can be considered the veneration of bread and water. During the liturgy, bread, a bloodless sacrifice to God, replaces the “body of Christ.” Blessed water, which protected against evil spirits, became the basis of the sacrament of baptism. A fire or candle burning in a lamp symbolizes pure and unquenchable love. Earth denotes the material essence of human flesh (“as you are the earth and you will go back to the earth”). The fruits brought to the church and consecrated received healing powers. Pagan rituals have become an organic component of many Christian holidays (Christmas, Easter, Intercession). Back in the middle of the twentieth century. Belarusian peasants sincerely revered Saint Nicholas, but at the same time they performed various ritual actions in order to protect themselves from the machinations of witches on Ivan Kupala. Different stages of representation not only do not conflict, but also coexist perfectly, complementing each other. The form of their coexistence is the system of folk rituals and customs, called folk Orthodoxy. Having set himself a specific task aimed at presenting folk culture to the general reader, the author of the reference book is well aware of how difficult and difficult it is to solve it. By attracting and interpreting various sources, he sought not to lose sight of any source worthy of respect, and at the same time to avoid inclusion of unverified and unconfirmed information in the reference book. Preface 9 The main source of information about Slavic mythology is considered to be records of folklore and ethnographic data collected by researchers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Note that the study of the traditional culture of the Slavic peoples lasts only a little more than two centuries, but it was carried out so intensively that only during the 18th - first third of the 19th centuries. At least one and a half hundred studies appeared on various spheres of folk culture. At the end and at the beginning of this stream, two encyclopedias can be distinguished - a book by the journalist and publisher M. Chulkov's "ABeVeGa of Russian superstitions" (1782) and the fundamental, but, unfortunately, not yet completed dictionary "Slavic Antiquities" edited by Academician N.I. Tolstoy (1995). There is a huge time distance between these works, reflecting the difficult evolution of views on Russian culture. Until the middle of the 19th century. folk culture was considered something base, rude, absurd, unworthy of the attention of educated people. Subsequently, she became the object of enthusiastic worship, and only from the middle of the 19th century. we can talk about the beginning of its scientific research. All this time, tireless, painstaking, outwardly imperceptible work was going on to collect, record and study the surviving monuments of the past. The process of accumulation of material was reflected in the appearance of significant scientific works. Among them it is necessary to note the books by A.N. Afanasyeva, E.V. Anichkova, A.N. Veselovsky, P.N. Bogatyreva, D.K. Zelenina, A.A. Potebnya, V.Ya. Propp and many others. Based on the work carried out, it becomes possible to create a fairly complete picture of Slavic paganism. Thus, what we understand by the words “Old Russian mythology” is 90% reconstruction, and for this reason alone it presupposes a large share of convention. But this is a scientific reconstruction, because it is based on the laws of the development of human culture and is confirmed by a comparison of facts. The number of reliable primary sources (usually they are retellings of ancient texts by Orthodox authors) is quite limited. They are used so often by researchers that individual materials related to one or another per) 10 Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals of sonazhu have become a kind of “common place”, repeated in most publications on this topic. In a number of cases, the authors of dictionaries and reference books on Slavic mythology rely on information gleaned from works of the 19th century, without realizing that they are basically outdated many decades ago. They do not take into account that the materials accumulated over the subsequent years, including those contained in foreign studies, have led to a revision of many assessments and points of view. New facts obtained from comparative studies are not always introduced. Compensating for the lack of information, some authors add their own assumptions and additions to it, without caring about their confirmation by facts. They often connect similar facts without taking into account that they relate to phenomena at different times. It should also be said about deliberate hoaxes. They began to appear in Russian culture in the first decades of the 19th century, almost simultaneously with the development of Russian ethnography. At that time, they tried to “compensate” for the lack of real scientific facts. In the 20th century unknown monuments began to be “discovered”. These include the publication of the notorious “B) forest book.” Although the greatest scientists - V.V. Vinogradov, D.S. Likhachev, O.V. Tvorogov back in the 2nd half of the 20th century. proved that it is a hoax and was compiled not in ancient times, but at the beginning of the twentieth century, many authors of popular science books continue to stubbornly “ignore” such assessments. As a result, a powerful layer of “completely reliable” information has formed, which an inexperienced reader often accepts as truthful1. Of course, the author of this reference book could not avoid some errors and inaccuracies. Therefore, he will be grateful for any constructive comments. Email address: [email protected] . 1 1982. See: Borovsky Ya. The mythological world of the ancient Kievites. Kyiv, 11 Bibliography BIBLIOGRAPHY Apostolos Cappadona D. Dictionary of Christian art. Chelya) Binsk, 2000. Belovinsky L. Russian historical and everyday dictionary. M., 1999. Bernshtam T. Russian folk culture of Pomerania in the 19th – early 20th centuries. L., 1983. Gimbutas M. Slavs. M., 2003, 2004, 2005. Gimbutas M. Balty. M., 2004. Gromyko M. The World of Russian Village. M., 1991. Spiritual culture of northern Belozerie: Ethnodialectal vocabulary. M., 1997. Once upon a time. Russian ritual poetry. St. Petersburg, 1997. Zabylin M. Russian people. Its customs, rituals, legends, superstitions and poetry. M., 1880, 1989. Zelenin D. East Slavic ethnography. M., 1991. Calendar customs and rituals in foreign European countries. Late XIX – early XX centuries. Winter holidays. M., 1973. Calendar customs and rituals in foreign European countries. Late XIX – early XX centuries. Spring holidays. M., 1977. History of world culture: Schoolchildren's Handbook / Comp. F. Kapitsa, T. Kolyadich. M., 1996. Kagarov E. Religion of the ancient Slavs. M., 1918. KonSherbok D., KonSheobok L. Judaism and Christianity: Dictionary. M., 1995. Korinfsky A. People's Rus'. M., 1901. Kruglov Yu. Ritual poetry. T. 1–2. M., 1997–1998. All year round. Russian agricultural calendar. M., 1989. Levkievskaya E. Myths of the Russian people. M., 2000. Maksimov S. Unclean, unknown and the power of the god. St. Petersburg, 1903. Myths of the peoples of the world. T. 1–2. M., 1982. Mythological dictionary. M., 1986. Nekrylova A. Russian folk city holidays, entertainment and spectacles. The end of the 18th – the beginning of the 20th century. L., 1988. Essays on the history of Slavic culture. M., 1996. Panchenko A. People's Orthodoxy. St. Petersburg, 1998. Petrukhin V. Paganism of the ancient Slavs in the light of international research. M., 1985. 12 Slavic traditional beliefs, holidays and rituals Pomerantseva E. Mythological characters in Russian folklore. M., 1975. Poetry of peasant holidays. L., 1970. Propp V. Russian agrarian holidays: Experience of historical and ethnographic research. L., 1963. History of the culture of Ancient Rus'. T. 1–2. M., 1951. Russian demonological dictionary. St. Petersburg, 1995. Rybakov B. Paganism of the Ancient Slavs. M., 1981. Rybakov B. Paganism of Ancient Rus'. M., 1987. Garden of Demons: Dictionary of Infernal Mythology of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. M., 1998. Semenova M. We are Slavs! M., 1997. Slavic mythology: Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1995. Slavic antiquities: Ethnolinguistic dictionary. T. 1. M., 1995; T. 2. M., 1999; T. 3. M., 2004. Dictionary of religions. Judaism. Christianity. Islam. St. Petersburg, 2008. Snegirev I. Russian common holidays and superstitious rituals. Vol. 1–4. M., 1838. Sokolova V. Spring-summer calendar rituals of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. M., 1979. Tereshchenko A. Life of the Russian people. T. 1–4. St. Petersburg, 1848. Tokarev S. Religious beliefs of the East Slavic peoples. M., 1957. Chicherov V. Winter period of the Russian folk agricultural calendar. XVI–XIX centuries M., 1957. Kharlitsky M., Khromov S. Russian holidays, folk customs, traditions, rituals: A book for reading. M., 1996. Christianity: Encyclopedic Dictionary. T. 1–3. M., 1991–1995. Shangina I.I. Russian traditional life: Encyclopedic dictionary. St. Petersburg, 2003. Shangina I.I. Russian people. Weekdays and holidays: Encyclopedia. St. Petersburg, 2004. Shipov Ya.A. Orthodox dictionary. M., 1998. Ethnography of the Eastern Slavs: Essays on traditional culture. M., 1987. Pagan characters Avsen Mythological character, the main character of the ritual associated with the celebration of the New Year or Christmas. Probably, his name goes back to the Old Russian root “usin” - bluish, meeting) found in the names of the winter months (for example, prosinets - January). Other researchers believe that the word “avsen” comes from the word “canopy” (light). With the arrival of Avsen, the day is added, and the bright part of the year begins. A cycle of native songs is dedicated to Avsen, where he appears as an anthropomorphic character. They tell that Avsen comes on horseback and builds a bridge over which all other annual holidays “come”: Christmas, Epiphany, St. Basil’s Day. Since Avsen's arrival marked the beginning of the New Year celebration, with the honoring of Avsen in the traditional folk calendar, the spring cycle of holidays related to ensuring the fertility of the earth began. Therefore, they tried to appease Avsen in every possible way: he was solemnly greeted, treated to specially prepared dishes - pancakes, flat cakes, porridge, pies, pork legs. Ritual songs were sung by children who went on January 1 to congratulate their fellow villagers. They carried a basket with grain (wheat or oats). The children sang congratulations and threw grains across the table into the red corner. The housewife gave gifts to the children, and they moved to the next house. Here is one of these songs: Ovsen, osen! Bring me some brawn! What's the use of brusen? Sharpen the braid. What's the braid for? Mow the grass. What's the grass for? Feed the cows. What are cows for? Milk milk. What's the milk for? Feed the guys. Why guys? They have to plow the arable land. Break the beds. 16 Pagan Bannik A spirit that lives in a bathhouse, most often on a shelf or in the oven. Bannik was represented as a small naked old man, covered with mud or leaves from brooms. He could also transform into a dog or cat. Sometimes the bannik was presented in a female form - then he acted under the name shishi) gi (from the dialect verb shi shish - to swarm, move, do furtively). Outwardly, she looked like a small woman and was also dangerous for humans, so it was not recommended to come to the bathhouse without an appropriate offering. Bannik. Rice. AND I. Bilibina In some places, banni)ka was called obderikha. According to beliefs, she looked like a woman with long arms, big teeth, floor-length hair and wide-set eyes. She was respectfully called “the mistress of the bath.” Before washing, they respectfully asked: “Housewife of the bath, let us wash, fry, steam.” When leaving, they thanked: “Thank you, hostess, for the guy’s bathhouse. Good for you, good for us." Since the bathhouse has always been considered the habitat of evil spirits, the bannik was usually perceived as a character hostile to humans. To ward off the bannik, they sacrificed a black chicken to him, and after washing in the bathhouse they left a broom, a bar of soap and some warm water. Before entering the bathhouse, they “asked” the owner to let them wash and not harm people. During the bathing day, all people were usually divided into three lines and washed in “three pairs”; the “fourth pair” was intended for the bathhouse. Before starting to wash the banner, they warned us with the words: “Baptized on the shelf, unbaptized - from the shelf.” characters It was believed that the bannik was washed together with other household spirits - brownie, yard spirit, kikimora. Therefore, after the third steam, people should have left the bathhouse. In addition, it was forbidden to wash after midnight, and it was strictly forbidden to eat in the bathhouse. It was not allowed to heat the bathhouse on holidays, especially on Christmastide, because at that time devils or banniks and their children washed there. All of the above beliefs have a clear practical basis, since carbon monoxide gradually accumulated in a closed bathhouse, and a person could suffocate. The bathhouse could especially harm a child left unattended in the bathhouse. There was a belief that whoever the child is, the bannik replaces it with his own cub. The changeling is distinguished by its ugly appearance and the fact that it always screams. Unlike other children, he does not grow and does not start walking on time. Usually, after a few years, the changelings died, turning into a firebrand or a broom. Being a habitat of evil spirits, the bathhouse was considered one of the places of Christmas divination. At this time, at midnight, the women approached the door of the bathhouse or the brow (entrance) of the heater. Sticking their hand or the naked back of their body there, the girls waited for the bannerman’s answer. If he touched with a shaggy hand, it was assumed that the groom would be kind and rich, if naked - poor and evil. They not only washed themselves in the bathhouse, but also gave birth, since it was the warmest and cleanest place in the house. To prevent the bannitsa from causing harm, the woman in labor did not remove the cross, and she was never left alone. In the northern regions, it was believed that a bathhouse grandmother lived in the bathhouse and could cure any disease. She was treated with a spell before the first wash of a newborn child. During the construction of a new bathhouse or when moving to a new place, the bannik, like the housekeeper, was invited with him. Usually this was done by the owner of the house, and its inhabitants brought treats and a strangled black rooster or chicken to the bathhouse. Then the chicken was transferred to a new bathhouse, where it was buried under the threshold. It was believed that after completing the rituals, the bannik settled in a new place, and it was possible to wash in the bathhouse. 18 Belobog God of luck and happiness among the Slavic peoples. In the consciousness of ancient man, the whole world was divided into two parts - favorable and hostile. Each of them was controlled by its own god, who determined human destiny. One deity was responsible for all the good (White God), and the other for all the bad (Black God). The existence of faith in Be) lobog is confirmed by the toponyms associated with him, preserved to this day among various Slavic peoples - the names of mountains (hills). Thus, Mount Belobog was found in Serbia, near Moscow, back in the 19th century. There was an area called "White Gods". The popularity of Belobog is confirmed by numerous mentions in medieval chronicles, which included stories of travelers from other countries. In particular, the German monk Helmold, who visited the Slavic countries in the 12th century, wrote in the chronicle named after him that the Slavs do not begin any serious affairs without sacrifice to Belobog. However, over time, they lost faith in Belobog, although pagan traces of it have survived to this day. In particular, the belief that white brings good luck. In Russian fairy tales, the images of Belobog and Chernobog merged into a single character, who received the name “Share”, “Judge”. She can be good or bad. This is where the idea arose that a person’s fate is determined by Share or Nedol. They are also similar to the people to whom they are given. The difference is that Dolya is dressed in a beautiful dress, and Nedolya is dressed in an old and torn one. To live happily, you need to know your lot, i.e. mind your own business. You could see your share like this: go to the field on Easter night and, hearing the ringing of the bells for the evening, ask: “Where is my share.” Having heard the answer, you should have gone where it was said, and seeing Dolya, ask her for advice. Unlike Doli, Nedolya, on the contrary, comes to a person’s house and sits on the stove, because she is always cold. In Belarus they say that sometimes Nedolya is accompanied by small demons - Sinisters. They looked like small animals living behind the stove or sitting on the shoulders. Sometimes the evil one looked like a mangy 19 characters cat. The evil one could be put in a bag and drowned, buried, or left at a crossroads. All of these beliefs show the influence of European demonology, where the witch was accompanied by household spirits. Demons Initially, the word “demon” meant a spirit hostile to man. Traces of beliefs in demons can be found in numerous ancient conspiracies. As Christianity spread, pagan ideas about a hostile spirit were combined with the idea of ​​Christian demons, the personified embodiment of all kinds of evil. It is known that the angels who spoke out against the Lord God became demons. As punishment, the angels were cast down from heaven to earth. Once in the human world, they lost their angelic traits and turned into numerous demons. The legends also say that demons are the servants of the Devil, the main fallen angel, the worst enemy of God. In the lives of saints and teachings, they themselves call not only demons, but also pagan gods. Usually the plot is connected with them) you are about the temptation of the saints. In addition, they attacked monks, ascetics and hermits, trying by any means to interfere with their service to God. The first stories about such demonic intrigues date back to the 11th century, their author is the Egyptian hermit Anthony the Great. He overcomes various temptations and avoids the traps set by tireless demons seeking to interfere with his monastic solitude. After the spread of Christianity in Rus', stories about the tricks of demons also appeared. In the Prologue there is a story about how John the City caught a demon in a washstand, defeated him and rode him to Jerusalem. The winner of the demon could be like this) Demon. Rice. AND I. Bilibin 20 to act as a soldier or a blacksmith. These motifs were used by N. V. Go) Gol in the story “The Night Before Christmas” (the blacksmith Vakula travels on a demon to St. Petersburg). The dual origin of demons (divine and earthly) was manifested in the fact that their functions significantly expanded, for example, determining their power over the elements. Demons could spin whirlwinds, raise blizzards, send rain and storms. The beliefs are reflected in the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Demons” (1831): Look, there he is playing, Blowing, spitting on me, Now he’s pushing a wild horse into a ravine, There he stuck out in front of me for an unprecedented mile, There he sparkled with a small spark, And disappeared in the empty darkness... At the same time, demons retained some properties of angels: superhuman power, the ability to fly, read human thoughts and inspire their desires in a person. In the Christian tradition, demons were usually depicted as humanoid creatures, covered with shaggy hair, pagan black or blue skin, with a long tail, with claws on their hands and feet. Most often, the demon appeared before a person in the form of a cat, dog, or wolf, but he could also turn into people. The main function of demons is associated with causing various, most often minor, harm to people. There are many known fairy tales in which the demon takes the form of a person and seduces gullible people. It was also believed that the devil was capable of sending illness, depriving a person of strength, or simply deceiving. Demons are especially active on Christmas night and Christmastide, which are traditionally considered a time of rampant evil spirits. Since the demon was always somewhere nearby, close to the person, as if expecting his mistakes, everyday failures were usually associated with him. This is where many proverbs come from: “The demon has led you astray,” “This is the demon’s leprosy,” “The demons have averted their eyes.” To protect yourself from demons, you had to wear a cross around your neck, and start every task with a prayer or simply with the words: “Lord, bless.” 21 characters Witch The main character of the demonology of the Eastern and Western Slavs. The image of a witch combines the features of a folklore character and the properties of some demonological creatures. According to popular beliefs, an ordinary woman became a witch and was possessed by an evil spirit. The devil, devil, demon, and even her deceased husband were considered such. After all, they became mine for the purpose of enrichment after concluding a corresponding agreement with evil spirits. The properties of a witch were inherited from mother to daughter or from grandmother to granddaughter. They believed that the witch could not die until she transferred her witchcraft power. Sometimes, after all, they considered me to be simply a lonely woman who differed from those around her in her behavior or did not communicate with her neighbors. The description of appearance in Slavic folklore is no different from its European counterparts. She looked like an ordinary woman, only sometimes she had a tail and horns. After all, my mother had a heavy, unfriendly look, her eyes were barely visible from under her swollen, reddened eyelids. It was believed that the witch never looks into the eyes because in her pupils you can see the upside-down reflection of a person. Most often, the witch was presented as an ugly old woman with a hooked nose, bony hands, and sometimes lame or hunchbacked. But she could take on the appearance of a beautiful woman or girl in order to more easily lure people into her network. This is exactly the kind of witch portrayed by N.V. Gogol in the images of Solokha and Pannochka (“The Night Before Christmas” and “Viy”, 1831). The functions of a witch also practically do not differ among different nations. Usually, after all) ma was engaged in cleaning the pores) Witch. Rice. AND I. Bilibin 22 hours on people, pets, plants, as well as witchcraft. As a result of her actions, people began to quarrel, fight, and could even die. In Ukraine and the Carpathians, mothers were credited with the ability to cause rain, send hurricanes, hail, fires, storms and droughts. The witch could cause harm to crops by breaking or tying ears of corn in the field. They believed that by collecting the spikelets, the witch also took the future harvest from the field. Demonologists believed that at night the witch's soul left her body, trying to harm people or attend the Sabbath. The witch could also spoil livestock and take milk from cows, lard from pigs, eggs from chickens, and yarn from women. To do this, she collected dew from the pastures and sprinkled it on her cow. Numerous tales are known in which the characters repeated the witch’s witchcraft actions at home, and then did not know what to do with the large amount of milk from the cow. Finally, a witch could bewitch a person, turn him into a horse and ride him to death. The Eastern Slavs believed that witches manifest themselves primarily during holidays) Pagan coves - on Ivan Kupala, St. George's Day, the Annunciation, Easter and Trinity. It was believed that witches were especially dangerous during periods of the full moon and stormy nights. The Western Slavs also considered the most dangerous days of St. John, Lucius, Peter and Paul, the feast of Corpus Christi, and Walpurgis Night. On such days, witches attacked people by turning into a toad, dog, pig or cat. To protect against witches, amulets were usually used. To prevent the witch from entering the courtyard, a candle, consecrated in the church on Candlemas, had to be placed on the gate. Both were a broom stuck up with rods on a long stick, the teeth of a harrow or fork, as well as a stove grip. To protect the house, a knife, ax, scythe or other cutting objects were placed on the threshold. In the fairy tale (“Finist - the clear falcon”) it is said that he could not enter the house because of the knives placed at the window. Magical actions also protected from witches - showering a house or yard with poppy seeds, circling them, outlining walls with chalk, drawing crosses on gates, windows and doors. Herbs also protected, for example, wormwood, garlic, 23 characters, St. Andrew's cross, which scared away evil spirits. A significant part of the beliefs about witches is associated with ways of recognizing them. To do this, special ritual or ritual actions had to be carried out. It was believed, in particular, that upon seeing the Kupala lights, the witch would begin to suffer - writhing in convulsions, suffering from headaches. To stop the unpleasant sensations, she went out to the fire. Then it was necessary to neutralize the witch by pouring water boiled on the Kupal fire with needles thrown there on her. To force the witch to approach the fire, the milk of the cow she had cast a spell on was poured into the fire. When planning to deal with the witches, they were kept in wait in places where they could cause harm, for example, near the barn or stables. If I discovered a toad or frog alive there, I should have cut off its paw or gouged out its eye. Later, one of the women in the area was seen with a bandaged hand or eye. Sometimes an animal caught in a stable was simply killed and then thrown into the water. You could also hit the witch with an aspen stake or stick. Numerous tales tell of witches flying to the Sabbath. On the eve of Walpurgis Night (May 1), the witch smeared herself with mole fat and flew out through the chimney, pronouncing the spell: “I’m flying out, you’re flying, I’m not touching anything.” Getting to the gathering place, the witch used a shovel, a broom, a poker, a scythe, a pitchfork, a chair, a stick, and a horse skull. She also flew on a magpie and on animals (a horse or a boar). The places for the sabbath (gathering) of witches were “bald” mountains (on which there was no forest or only isolated trees grew). Road intersections and large stones also became such places. Having gathered, we feasted, worshiped the ox in the form of a goat, and plotted our own intrigues. It was believed that a witch could cause harm even after death. Therefore, she should have been buried face down or driven into the coffin with an aspen stake. The Witcher Unlike the witch, the witcher is a character exclusively in Eastern Slavic demonology. His image also combines the features of a folklore character and the features of a representative of evil spirits, borrowed from Christian demonology. Therefore, the witcher had two souls - human and demonic, which, in turn, determined the multifunctionality of the witcher’s actions: he remained hostile to the person or was friendly towards him. It was believed that the witcher looked like a man with a small tail with four hairs growing on it. He had an “evil eye”; if a person looked directly into his eyes, he could get sick and even die. The witcher saw the outside world upside down. He could quietly remove a person's eyes and then return them to their place or replace them. In most fairy tales, the witcher acts in concert with the witches - he harms people, casting spells on them, takes milk from cows, turns people into wolfhounds. He himself can turn into a horse, a wolf and even a moth. At the same time, there are beliefs according to which the witcher committed good deeds, conspired to cure pagan diseases, curing people and animals. The Witcher was also distinguished by his organizational abilities. He knew all the witches and wizards in the area and could control them. The Ukrainian tale tells how a witcher saves his son, bewitched by a witch. He goes to Bald Mountain and defeats all the witches there, including the most important one - the Kyiv one. Like the witch, the witcher melts at the Sabbath. Sometimes he leads all the witches there. Then the witcher is given the traditional functions of the devil, and the witches must report to him. The Witcher also teaches young witches and prevents them from harming people too much. Some tales say that witchers gather separately from witches at crossroads or on the Red Mountains. Before death, a witcher is obliged to transfer his power and knowledge to another person, but he continues to act after death, and most often for the benefit of people. It was believed that the witcher guards his village, keeping the dead and ghouls out. However, if the appropriate measures are not taken in time, after death the witcher himself may become a ghoul. To prevent this from happening, the deceased witcher had to be cut off, placed face down in a coffin, or driven into the grave with an aspen stake. Veles (Volos) In Slavic mythology, Veles is the god of livestock. Traces of the cult of Veles & Vlasiy were preserved in all places where the Slavs settled; idols and sanctuaries of the god were found during excavations. It is known that in Kyiv on Podol there was a large idol of Veles, in front of which protective and propitiatory rites were regularly performed. Veles is also mentioned in documents. In particular, in the text of the trade agreement with the Greeks from 907, Veles acts as a guarantor on the part of the Russians. His name is named in the “Tale of Bygone Years” (XII century) as the patron saint of domestic animals. Vladimir commanded to “throw the hair of the idol named after him, like a cattle god, into the Pochaina River.” Perhaps, as the deity of the lower world, Veles patronized storytellers and singers, apparently for this reason in “The Tale of Igo’s Regiment” Boyan is called “Veles’s grandson.” After the adoption of Christianity, the functions of Veles were transferred to Saint Blaise (obviously due to the correspondence of the names), as well as to Saints Nicholas and George (Yuri). Numerous protective rituals are known that existed until the end of the 19th century. On the day of St. Blaise, called the “cow holiday” in Rus', draft animals were freed from work. Then they prepared a treat consisting of meat dishes, as well as pancakes and pancakes (pancakes so that the oxen were smooth), they were generously poured with butter so that the newborn calves would suck milk well. Part of the treat was brought to the barn and fed to the animals with the words: “St. Veles.” Masks 26 toy Vlasiy, give happiness to smooth heifers, to fat bulls.” In particular, in many places on the field they left a “hair beard”, several uncompressed stalks of cereals tied with ribbon. It was also believed that in case of illnesses in livestock, it was necessary to bring the icon of St. Blaise into the barn. Wind Like other elements, the wind could be evil and good, destructive or beneficial for humans. A small wind blowing in the right direction was needed to carry out a number of economic tasks - sowing, winnowing grain, rotating windmills. A strong wind uprooted trees, destroyed houses and crops, and raised a storm at sea. It was believed that a quiet breeze arises from the blowing of angels, and a strong wind is generated by the devil. The Slavs believed that the winds obey their ruler - Stribog. The four main winds live at the four corners of the earth: north, south, east and west. In fairy tales, the winds are represented in the images of young people. Together with their father or mother, they live Pagans at the end of the world, in a dense forest or on an island in the middle of the sea. From here the winds scatter throughout the world, bringing rain to the earth and enabling ships to sail. The idea of ​​the wind as an animate being led to the appearance of numerous stories about summoning and even inviting the wind. It was believed that the wind could be caused by singing or whistling. In many coastal areas there are stories about how fishermen's wives went to the sea in the evenings. Facing the east, the women sang, turning to the wind. They asked him to blow in the right direction, not to sink or drive ships away from their native shores. In return, they promised to cook porridge and bake pancakes to feed the wind. Millers and sailors turned to the wind and asked for help. They fed the wind by climbing to the top of the mill or mast and throwing up several handfuls of flour. Then the mill or sail was turned in the wind. This is how the expression “harnessing the wind” appeared. So that the wind would not be offended, people made sacrifices to it: 27 characters annually on certain days fed them with bread, flour, cereals, and meat. On major holidays, leftovers from festive dishes were given to the wind. To calm the strong wind, they gave him gifts - they burned old clothes or shoes. There is also a known ritual of dedicating a child to the wind. During hot weather or prolonged drought, take a smartly dressed girl to a high place and gently persuade the wind: “Blow, blow the breeze, we’ll give you Anechka.” In a Latvian wedding song, the following appeal to the wind sounds: Wind, breeze, drive the shuttle, Carry me to Kurzeme, To your beloved bride. It was believed that it was dangerous to offend the wind, since it turned from good to evil, bringing diseases, as well as various evil spirits. But the wind could also carry away diseases, which was asked for in a special appeal “Carry the trash further.” Sometimes they turned to the disease itself: “The wind brought you, let the wind carry you away.” In order not to “give it to the wind,” they buried the straw on which the sick or deceased lay. It was forbidden to dry baby's diapers in the wind, so that the wind would not carry away the child's thoughts or memory. Since ants always gathered in an anthill before bad weather, a belief arose about their connection with the wind. It was believed that the destruction of an anthill would lead to the appearance of a destructive whirlwind. Vechorka, Polunochka and Zorka In Russian fairy tales, this is the name given to the triad of heroes who personify the main stages of the daily solar cycle. Their names are determined by the time of birth. Three big boys were born one after another in one night: the eldest in the evening, the middle one at midnight, and the youngest at dawn. Researchers believe that the images of Zorka, Vecherka and Polunochka passed into the fairy tale from ancient solar myths. Depending on the nature of the connection with the sun, they differ in strength. Vechorka and Polunochka are always inferior to Zorka, who receives strength from the sun. Similar images of triple gods exist in the myths of various peoples of the world: in the plot of the Mahabharata, for example, the race tells of three children of the god Ushas, ​​who performed heroic deeds. In the epics of a number of Caucasian peoples there are twin heroes with analogical names (Budzi and Kudzi). Most of the stories dedicated to such heroes say that when they grow up, they will go in search of the three royal daughters who were kidnapped by the Whirlwind. The heroes reach a dense forest, in the center of which they find a bush. They stop and decide that they will take turns staying home and cooking. When two brothers go hunting, a “little man as big as a fingernail, with a beard as long as an elbow” appears in the hut, beating the remaining brother and taking away the food he had prepared. This continues for two days. On the third day, Zorka remains in the hut, who turns out to be stronger than his brothers. He defeats the old man and, so that he does not run away before the brothers arrive, pinches his beard in an oak stump. However, the old man manages to uproot the stump and escape. The brothers follow in his footsteps and discover that he has disappeared into a “gap,” a deep well or pit. Zorka Pagan descends underground, leaving his brothers to wait for him on the surface. In the underworld, Zorka finds the Old Man, defeats him and frees the princesses taken away by him. This plot often includes motifs from other fairy tales, for example, the story of the three kingdoms or the battle with monsters on the Kalinov Bridge. In the Russian fairy tale epic, it is one of the most archaic plots. Whirlwind A strong wind that is dangerous to humans, which can swirl in one place and lift people, animals and objects into the air. It was believed that the whirlwind was formed by crowds of various evil spirits: demons, devils, witches, and sometimes goblin. They somersault, dance, fight in a powerful air current. This presentation reflected specific observations. It is known that a whirlwind rushing across a field resembles a column of dust in which pieces of straw, leaves, and plant branches are carried. Popular fantasy saw in their flickering people, animals, and strange creatures 29 characters with chicken paws instead of legs. A similar dance was colorfully described by A.S. Pushkin in his poem “Demons” (1831): Endless, ugly, In the muddy game of the month Various demons swirled, Like leaves in November... How many are there, where are they driven, Why do they sing so pitifully? Do they bury the brownie, or marry off the witch? The whirlwind was also represented as an anthropomorphic creature with a huge head and grinning mouth. Its main feature is its destructive activity: it can uproot trees, rip roofs off houses, and scatter hay stacked in stacks. It was believed that the Whirlwind comes from the other world. Due to constant hostility towards man, he is ranked among the representatives of evil spirits. The whirlwind could bring illness, cause damage, or even cause paralysis. To protect against the Whirlwind, they used amulets: tying a rope in a storm, consecrating a knife on Easter, and pronouncing special spells. To drive away the whirlwind, they sprinkled holy water scooped from an ice hole on Epiphany into the furiously rotating column, or threw a sharply sharpened consecrated knife. If he was covered in blood, then they believed that the Whirlwind was wounded along with the evil spirits rushing inside him. According to numerous tales, demons could be seen. To do this, one had to bend down and look at the vortex back between the legs, from under the left shoulder, or through the turned out sleeve of clothing. In the same way one could see the witches rushing in a whirlwind. The destruction left by the whirlwind was also considered unclean. Uprooted trees, broken ears of corn in the fields, as well as “witches’ brooms” (branches that grew into a tangle) and even an ordinary mat on the head were considered to be the product of evil spirits. Water In popular belief, one of the main elements of the universe. Since ancient times, people have been aware of the enormous importance of water. It was considered the source of life and at the same time had enormous destructive power. Therefore, in relation to water, two feelings have always been combined - fear and gratitude. In the overwhelming majority of folk customs, water exists as an image endowed with positive semantics. Hence the corresponding affectionate characteristics - “sweetheart”, “pure”, “mother” or definitions - “water”, “God’s sister”, “water is the queen”. Over time, a dual view of water developed. On the one hand, water was seen as a means of purification and at the same time they were looking for a source of strength in it. In Russian fairy tales, for example, water could be either alive or dead. On the other hand, water was considered as a kind of border between the human world and the “other world.” The idea that after death a person’s soul is immersed in water also comes from ancient times. It was through water that in most mythological systems the path to the afterlife passed, where the souls of the dead and various evil spirits lived. In particular, there is a well-known custom of funerals by sending the deceased across the water in a boat, into which objects and food intended for the pagan deceased were placed. To this day, the custom of throwing out all the water in the house after the death of a person has been preserved. The numerous functions of water were due to the antiquity of the rituals associated with it; over time, they combined the archaic ideas that animated it, as well as later Christian beliefs based on the cleansing function of water. The ancient Slavs poured out sources of deity, believing that in these places its power comes out of the earth. Therefore, the water from the source was considered healing and was used as a talisman against forces hostile to man. This is also where the custom of dousing yourself with water comes from before some difficult task or before a wedding. An old wish has been preserved: “Be as healthy as water.” Man's fear of the raging elements was reflected in the belief that mermen, mermaids and devils live in water. The following sayings are common: “Where there is water, there is trouble,” “The devil is afraid of fire, but lives in water.” To prevent devils from getting into the water intended for food or drinking, the characters should have covered it with cross-shaped straws. When collecting water from a stream or going for a swim, certain actions had to be followed: throw pieces of bread into the water or leave food on the shore, and also turn to the water with a respectful greeting. When entering the water, they addressed the devil directly, saying: “The devil is out of water, and I’m into the water.” Coming out of the water, they said: “I am from the water, and the devil is in the water.” After the spread of Christianity, the veneration of water was preserved, organically entering into the Christian cult, which already included the ritual rite of baptism. The cleansing function of water was reflected, in particular, in the rite of Blessing of Water. The water taken from the ice hole on this day was considered healing, and it was kept in the house throughout the year. In some places, water sanctification was also performed on other holidays: on the eve of Easter, on the Day of the Nativity of John the Baptist. They believed that the water taken from the springs on Christmas, Candlemas and Holy Thursday had miraculous and even magical properties. They washed their faces with this water, gave water to the sick and livestock, and used it for magical actions. In an effort to save the cattle from diseases or from the machinations of the courtyard, they sprinkled holy water in the corners of the barn. Instead, it was possible to take water, which the brownie himself endowed with magical powers. To get it, you had to put several coals taken from under the stove, where the brownie usually lived, into a pot of water. This water was supposed to be sprinkled on the corners of outbuildings, as well as beehives and the entrance to the bathhouse. Water was also used as a talisman. Small children were doused with water, saying the spell: “Water is off a duck’s back, but thinness is on (name).” There is a famous legend in which Saint Peter splashes water behind his back. It was believed that as many drops fall, as many devils will die. Traces of such rituals are preserved in the rituals of washing newborns, as well as the dead. To protect against the evil machinations of the dead, after removing the body, the floor and furniture in the house had to be washed. To ensure a safe return, holy water was sprinkled after the person leaving the house. Water was also widely used for fortune telling. To see the future, one was supposed to look into a vessel with water or at the surface of a river. If the water remained clear, then the prediction was considered favorable. Otherwise, they talked about imminent illness or even death. This ritual is reflected in the saying “Like looking into water.” To determine the character of the future husband, a stone was thrown into the water. If there was a splash when falling, it was believed that the husband would be grumpy. If the stone fell quietly, then the character of the future spouse should have been calm. There was also a custom of feeding water: throwing a specially baked cookie into it, they asked for help in upcoming affairs or to contribute to an upcoming wedding. During the fortune telling, the girls threw a wreath onto the water. If the river carried him away, then the girl was waiting for matchmakers. The Water Spirit of Water, one of the main representatives of Slavic demonology, personified the power of the hostile Pagan water element to man. In the image of the merman, the most ancient ideas of various cults merged: pagan and Christian features complemented each other and formed into the image of a mysterious river spirit. This is also where its various names come from: “waterman”, “water master”, “water darling”, “ashbird”, “hairy”. Stories and beliefs about the merman are widespread in Belarus and in the north-west of Russia, i.e. in areas with many natural bodies of water. It was believed that the merman lives in every lake, river, and pond. Most often, the merman was represented as a tall man or an ugly, bald old man, entangled in mud, with a long gray or green beard and a large belly. Usually he was surrounded by female spirits: waterwort and ru) salki. Often the merman was inspired by the traits of other evil spirits, most often the devil. Hence the numerous descriptions of the merman as a creature with horns or long clawed paws. Like other representatives of evil spirits, the merman had the ability to transform into a fish, horse, pig, cow or dog. characters According to beliefs, there was a water vein in the deepest places: river whirlpools, whirlpools, mill dams. It was believed that the waterman’s estate was located under the water, in the dark depths. It reminds one of a rich peasant house. True, the domestic animals living there are always only black in color. A similar indirect indication of belonging to an evil spirit is also evident in the custom of sacrificing black animals to the merman: a goat or a rooster. They say that the water man has a family - the water woman’s wife and the water woman’s children. Vodyaniha looks like an ugly woman with huge breasts. In some places it is believed that in the spring, when rivers flood, mermen celebrate weddings. Since water oil represented an element hostile to man, they tried to placate him in all sorts of ways. Since the millers were closest to the waterman, they annually presented the waterman with a black pig. During the construction of the dam, a horse skull was buried in the bottom of the river, which was supposed to protect the mill from the mischief of the waterman. 33 The fishermen also tried in every possible way to please the “water grandfather”. Therefore, part of the first catch was thrown back into the water, saying: “Take, grandfather, a gift!” Before entering the water, they asked the waterman for permission: “Master, mistress, save me!” So that) not to disturb the waterman, but) whose it was forbidden to take water from the river. If they took it, they asked permission: “Master and hostess, allow me to take the water.” Since the waterman was known as an avid smoker, he was often given a pinch of tobacco, which was thrown into a whirlpool or under a mill wheel. There are numerous stories that tell how in the evenings a merman would sit on the shore of a mill pond with a pipe in his mouth. It is curious that the merman was also revered as the patron saint of bees. This idea probably reflected the dependence of beekeeping on weather conditions and, above all, on dampness and rain. It is known that prolonged rains prevented bees from collecting honey and could lead to the death of hives. In order for the merman to take care of the bees, it was necessary to give him 34 fresh honey, not yet taken out of the honeycomb. The image of the merman was often used by writers (in) N.V. Gogol’s “May Night or the Drowned Woman”, 1830) In a somewhat caricatured form, it is found in some works of the twentieth century, in particular in “Naughty Tales” by I. Lada (1956), the story by O. Proysler “The Little Waterman” "(1965). Air One of the four elements of the universe. In ancient Slavic ideas, air was primarily considered as a medium through which damage was caused or disease was spread. It was believed that such air appears in moments of complete calm, as well as on moonless nights or during a lunar eclipse. Anyone who found himself on the street at that time should fall face down on the ground so as not to inhale unclean air. With the adoption of Christianity, the view of air changed. It began to be seen as the place where the human soul resides. It was believed that after the pagan death of a person, the soul leaves the body and becomes invisible. For forty days the soul is in the air, after which it rises to heaven, where the Lord God himself determines its future fate. Therefore, after forty days, it is customary to organize a wake for the deceased and be sure to place food on the grave. At the same time, the soul is greeted with a special spell: “The body is in the hole, the soul is with us, we are going home, the soul is going up the mountain.” According to another belief, also associated with funeral rituals, steam rises from a recent burial, taking on the image of a woman in a white dress or the deceased himself. This ghost is extremely dangerous; in search of a bodily shell, it can chase people and even kill them. To escape from such a spirit, one had to run against the wind or raise the pectoral cross (white scarf) towards the wind. The air was considered the seat of evil spirits. They believed that demons and witches danced in the rapidly rotating whirlwind, and illnesses were hidden in the clouds of fog. According to numerous tales, a witch could drink a miraculous liquid or smear herself with magical ointment, after which she would become light as a feather and invisible. She could freely fly through the air or go to the Sabbath. In popular Orthodoxy, the air was considered as the location of demons who sought to cause minor troubles to people. An invisible demon could land on a person's left shoulder. Then it was necessary to turn to the guardian angel, who was on the right shoulder and remained invisible. Traces of this idea are preserved in the custom of spitting over the left shoulder. It was believed that this could ward off evil spirits. Dazhdbog (Dazhbog) God of the Sun among the ancient Slavs. In ancient Russian sources he is mentioned together with Stribog, who personified the clear sky. The Tale of Bygone Years (1144) says that the main sanctuary of Dazhdbog was located in Kyiv, on a high hill. The Slavs believed that Dazhdbog was the son of one of the main deities - Sva)rog. They saw in the Sun the source of enormous creative power, on which their well-being depended. This is where the name of God comes from - “the one who gives people well-being.” Perhaps this is why Dazhdbog was considered the patron saint of the entire Russian people. It is known that in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” the main character of the work is respectfully called “Dazhdboz’s grandson.” To this day, traces of belief in Dazhdbog have been preserved in Ukrainian folk songs, where he was portrayed as the patron of weddings. One Ukrainian song, in particular, tells how the groom meets Dazhdbog on the way to the wedding and asks for his protection. The symbol of the sun on ritual bracelets of the 12th–13th centuries. 36 In the spring, the main holiday associated with the glorification of Dazhdbog was celebrated. The Slavs believed that it was Dazhdbog who met the Sun and brought it to earth. The nightingale was mentioned as Dazhdbog's assistant. According to legend, he brought the keys to Dazhdbog so that he would lock Winter and feast Summer. Yard A domestic spirit that lived in the yard. Like the brownie, the yard served as the patron of all livestock. The description of the courtyard combines the traditional features of the brownie and the werewolf, taken from Christian demonology. Outwardly, the courtyard looked like a man, but his legs were those of a chicken, goat or cat. According to other stories, the courtyard looked like a snake with a rooster's head and comb. At night he could take on the appearance of the owner of the house. The location of the courtyard was considered to be a specially suspended pine or spruce branch with densely overgrown needles. Since the yard man was a nocturnal creature, he did not like anything light. Having bought a Pagan white horse, it was led into the yard backwards or through a sheepskin coat spread out at the gate. If he didn’t like the horse, then he didn’t take care of it, the animal began to lose weight, waste away, and often found itself covered in perspiration in the morning. They tried to sell such cattle, otherwise the yard servant could kill it. Sometimes, to protect themselves from the yard, they resorted to the help of a brownie or hung a killed magpie in the stable (in the barn). It was believed that it would scare away the evil spirit. They always tried to appease the courtyard with numerous offerings. On major holidays, he was left with treats, and when moving to a new place, he was respectfully invited to follow his family. Note that the brownie and the yard are twin characters, and in many areas they are not distinguished. House spirit The house spirit is the guardian of the home and family. Initially, the guardian of the house was considered to be the deceased ancestor - the founder of the clan, the first owner of the ancestral house. The Slavs believed in such spirits even during pagan times. Over time, individual traits were lost, and from the ancestor of the house, the house turned into a house spirit - a guardian. He is also called by his place of “residence” – “golbechnik”, “baker-maker”, “under) stove-maker”, and respectfully – “from) the Byanoy highway”, “grandfather”, “well-wisher”, “shaggy landlady”, “breadwinner” " That is why in most epics and fairy tales the house has a human form. Usually the brownie was represented as a small old man with a silver-white beard, large hands and bare feet. This kind of thing is found among most European peoples. In rare cases, a brownie is compared to a tree: “A frightened woman emerges, as tall as a hundred-year-old birch tree, her head is like a scattered shock of hay, a tuft to the right, a tuft to the left, a tangle sticks out from there, like a rolling field, and entwined with thistles.” long hair, and burning eyes that just stare.” On the other hand, the brownie was also characterized negatively, emphasizing his affiliation with evil spirits - “dashing”, “the other half”, “not his spirit”, “licious”, “domovoy devil”, “unclean” " Usually there were two types of brownies. One was the elder, who lived in the corner behind the stove, the second was considered the yard servant, who lived outside the hut. In their distinction one can see the traditional opposition: house - yard. The house was considered “one’s own” territory, and everything that was outside its boundaries was considered someone else’s. Domozhil always helped the owner, he had a family, a housewife, or housewife, and children. In some stories, the brownie's wife was called ki)kimora. The brownie was highly respected, on holidays he was given refreshments, the owner of the house himself invited him to share the meal, almost) the brownie. Rice. AND I. Bilibin 38 specifically called “breadwinner”, “master” and “grandfather”. In the last appeal, the most ancient belief was preserved, according to which the deceased ancestor of the family became a brownie. That is why anthro-pomorphic features predominate in the image of a brownie. During archaeological excavations, scientists have repeatedly found small figurines or schematic drawings on birch bark depicting brownies. The finds clearly show human features. Usually the brownie lived in the house or in outbuildings, in dark corners or under the stove. Sometimes the brownie lived in a stable, since horses were his favorite animals. The kind brownie carefully looked after them, combed their manes, and provided them with the best food. The brownie, offended by the owner, starved the horses, frightened them, or even sent some kind of disease to them. Before buying a horse, the thrifty owner went into the stable and asked the housekeeper what color the horse should be. The owner not only brought the newly purchased horse into the stable, but also necessarily “introduced” it to the brownie, begging him to take care of it as well as other animals. If the horse was liked, the brownie would help the owner and look after it. Sometimes the brownie didn’t like the horse, and then he tried to survive it - he didn’t give it food, scared it, and sent it sick. In addition to horses, the brownie was especially fond of the rooster, which was considered the “master of the house.” To drive an evil brownie out of the house, they often used a rooster, sweeping its wing around all corners of the hut and yard. During the construction of a new house, after laying the first row of logs, a special ritual of driving the house was performed. He was given a treat in the form of a saucer of milk, and then throughout the night he was strictly forbidden to approach the construction site. Otherwise, the future house could be left without a brownie and, therefore, lose a protector who would later protect it from the invasion of evil spirits. The custom of being the first to let a rooster or cat into a new house has survived to this day. It was believed that they would be subject to the machinations of an evil force, characters that could lie in wait for a person in a new home. When moving to a new place, the brownie was specially invited to move with everyone else. Sometimes the brownie was even transported with his belongings. Arriving at the stable with a treat, the owner persuaded the brownie not to leave his family and livestock unprotected. Stories are recorded in various places about how an abandoned or forgotten brownie moans and cries in an empty house. Sometimes he began to play dirty tricks on those who dared to settle in that place. During the housewarming, the brownie was also presented with special food gifts. It was believed that it was best to transfer the brownie to the day of the Beheading of John the Baptist (August 29 / September 11). Arriving at the old barn, the owner took the stake out of the manger and moved it to the new yard with the words: “Father hostess, mother hostess, little de) carcasses! We’re going, and you’re going to come along with us!” If the family was divided - for example, an adult married son moved to a new house, then the family of the brownie was divided - his children moved to a new place. Unlike the domozhil, the courtyard was considered a negative spirit and in function was similar to the barn or bannik. Faith in this spirit is described in the “Life of Theodosius of Pechersk,” a monument of the 12th century: “A monastery monk came to the blessed father of Theodosius and told that in the stable, where cattle are locked up, there is a dwelling for demons. They do a lot of dirty tricks, not allowing the livestock to eat.” The customs associated with the courtyard were of an emphatically protective nature: it was forbidden to stay overnight both in the bathhouse and in the barn; It was not allowed to allow outside animals into the yard, since the animal could take on their appearance. The favorite animal of the yard was a cat (or tom), distinguished by its activity at night. The identification of the yard and the cat is illustrated by a riddle: “How in our country the yard walks with a black head, wears a velvet fur coat, he has fiery eyes, a snub nose, a sticky mustache, sensitive ears, quick legs, tenacious claws . During the day he lies in the sun, tells wonderful fairy tales, wanders around at night, goes hunting.” Sometimes, instead of a cat, the dwarf appears in the complex image of a monster: “The cat is a little bigger, and the body is similar to a cat, but there is no tail. The head is like a man’s, the nose is humpbacked, the eyes are sore, red like fire, and above them there are black, large eyebrows, a wide mouth, and in it two rows of black teeth, a red and rough tongue, hands like in humans, only the claws are curved. All overgrown with hair, it looks like a gray cat, but the legs are human.” The shaggy appearance of a brownie was considered a favorable sign. They believed that in poor houses he was naked. Usually the brownie hides from people, and his appearance foreshadows some important event. If it happens that the housewife leaves, then “the house will not hold on”: the household will fall apart, the livestock will get sick, or one of the family members will die. They also say that before the death of the owner, the brownie appears in his hat. There are many stories about how the house howl warned of misfortune. If he screams under the window, walks around the house - to death, knocks on the window, creaks the door - to a fire, makes noise in the attic - to trouble. In order for the brownie to help run the household, they tried to appease him. Entering the barn, hello) The pagans said: “Good afternoon to you, dear master. Protect me from all evil." When leaving in the evening, they said goodbye: “Look, grandfather brownie, don’t let anyone in.” On major holidays, the housewife was fed: on New Year's Eve, borscht and porridge were taken to the attic, during the fasting before Great and Nativity Lent - pancakes, a piece of meat and a cup of milk, on Easter - colored eggs. It was believed that on the day of Eph) Remus the Syrian (February 10) it was his name day. On this day, they left him porridge, colored scraps, and sheep's wool. Kikimora Demonological character, known primarily in Russian folklore. The image of the kikimora combines ideas from different eras. The most ancient layer developed in pagan times and is associated with the veneration of the female deity Mokosha. Another component is related to the belief in the “damned.” A kikimora was a daughter cursed by a parent or a daughter who died before baptism. Therefore, ideas about the appearance of a kikimora are varied - it looks like a small ugly woman with chicken legs, and like a girl with a long braid, naked or dressed in a white, black or red shirt, and like a peasant woman in ordinary attire a married woman, and like a little girl. Kikimora came to the house herself or was “let in.” Thus, a carpenter or stove maker dissatisfied with his remuneration, in order to harm the owner, could vilely live under the matitsa (the main beam of the house) figurine of a kikimora, roughly carved out of wood. Like the brownie, the kikimora lived in a hut. Her appearance in a house or in outbuildings, on a threshing floor, in a barn, in a yard, in a bathhouse was considered an evil omen. It was believed that kiki) mora settled in houses built in a “bad” place, i.e. where a strangled man or an uninveterate dead man was buried. After the housewarming party, the kikimora usually began to harm its owner. In order for her to change her anger to mercy and begin to help the family, abundant offerings were required. If the kikimora began to over-salt the bread, the salt shaker should be tied with a juniper belt. They believed that the kikimora did not like this plant and would not approach it. At the same time, acting as a female spirit, the kikimora patronized all traditionally female occupations: spinning, weaving, and baking. There are widespread stories about how kikimora helped wash dishes, rock children, and bake bread. She usually wove or spun for a good housewife. The negligent mistress of the kikimora ordered) the shaft: she confused the threads, tipped over) the shaft. The kikimora especially carefully watched the girls who were going to get-togethers; she punished the lazy ones with clicks. The noted functions bring kikimora closer to other de) Kikimora. Rice. AND I. Bilibin 42 monologue characters of Russian folklore, in particular with the brownie’s wife. Together with the brownie, the kikimora could take care of livestock, and looked after the chickens at night. Like other household spirits, kikimora predicted the future. She appeared before any important event or the death of one of the family members. Usually, before a disaster, the kimora would rattle the utensils, knock, or cry. The most common talisman against kikimora was considered to be the “chicken god” - a small flat stone with a natural hole. It was hung over the chicken's roost, where the kikimora usually lived. Finding a stone was considered a good sign. The Lord's Prayer also helped. It was believed that on the day of Gerasim Grachevnik (March 17), kikimors become humble. In the Medical Book of the 18th century. There is a conspiracy to expel the kikimora from the house: “Oh, you goy, brownie kikimora, get out of the goryunin’s house as soon as possible.” It is very difficult to get rid of kikimora. In order to destroy a sent kikimora, one had to find a doll or other object, with the help of the pagans who sent it, say prayers, throw it outside the estate or burn it. It was possible, but it would have been possible to put camel hair with dewy incense under the pole. Kostroma In East Slavic mythology - the embodiment of spring and fertility. Usually Kostroma was represented in the form of a beautiful young woman in long white clothes with an oak branch in her hands. She moved along the ground, accompanied by a girl's round dance. With the advent of Kostroma, plants blossomed and pleasant aromas filled the air. The image of Kostroma is associated with the ceremony of seeing off spring in the form of a ritual funeral. In the summer, a number of funerals of Kostroma itself were held. A straw effigy of a woman was specially made for him. Accompanied by a round dance, the effigy was carried around the village, and then buried in the ground, burned at the stake or thrown into the river. It was believed that the following year Kostroma would resurrect and come to earth again, bringing fertility to the fields and plants. 43 characters Kupala The main character of the summer solstice holiday, which took place on the night of June 23-24 / July 7*. Apparently, on this day the ancient Slavs celebrated the holiday of the solar deity. The holiday of Kupala was also associated with the veneration of fire. It was believed that the connection between fire and water personified the dependence of fertility on the bright sun and good watering. The fact that Kupala is indeed the name of a deity is evidenced by the Gustyn Chronicle of the 17th century: “Kupala is commemorated on the eve of the birth of John the Baptist. In the evening, a simple family gathers around him and weaves crowns of edible herbs or roots, girds himself with plants, lights a fire, where they place a green branch, holding hands, turn around the fire, sing their songs, jump over the fire , they sacrifice themselves to the same demon Kupala. And when night passes by, they retreat to the river with great shouting.” It is obvious that the rituals combined the worship of two elements - fire and water. * Accordingly, Kupala was represented in the form of a woman or a man. Preparations for the holiday began several days in advance; a scarecrow dressed in festive clothes was placed in a high place near the village. Offerings were laid out around him, and in the evenings they danced in circles and sang songs: Oh, Ivan was swimming, And he fell into the water, He picked up white tickets, And gave it to all the children, Ivan, Ivan, Go! In the evenings, numerous fires were lit, over which the ritual participants had to jump. It was believed that the higher the jump, the higher the bread would grow in the summer. The fire provided the ritual participants with health and fertility power. Therefore, through Kost) Kupala (summer solstice holiday) The dates of the holidays are indicated according to the old style. Not only girls, but also women who wanted to give birth to a child jumped 44 jumps. When the holiday ended, the effigy of Kupala was drowned in the river or burned. After the adoption of Christianity, the holiday of Kupala was combined with the day of John the Baptist and became known as the Day of Ivan Kupala. It is celebrated among almost all Slavic peoples. In particular, in Latvia, on this day they celebrate the Ligo holiday, the ritual of which is practically no different from the Kupala ritual. The interaction of the two elements is also manifested in swimming games. On Kupala night they jumped over fires and “played in water”: they doused each other. It was believed that the guy would love the girl he would pour water on. Midsummer games were distinguished by their eroticism. Guys and girls walked and swam together, which was prohibited on other days. During games, kisses, caresses, and hugs were allowed. The girl could “play” with whomever she wanted, and jealousy on the part of her constant “suitor” was not allowed. The songs that accompanied the sexual attractions were also quite frank: Pagan Ivan Marya Called to the bath, Bathed for Ivan! Where did Kupala Night spend the night? Under the aspen tree, With Maksimka, Under the nut, With Tereshka. They speak metaphorically about the intercourse of a man and a woman: Oh, how young I am, I was in the garden, Oh how I am behind the head of cabbage, And the head of cabbage screamed, How I am breaking the head of cabbage, Falling the head of cabbage into the furrow, Even though the furrow is narrow, Let’s settle down! Although the night is small, let's have some fun! It was believed that on Midsummer's Day nature reaches its highest point of flowering. Therefore, it was customary to collect medicinal herbs that acquired maximum strength, as well as plants necessary for sorcery and fortune telling. Usually they were collected by women, naked or wearing only shirts with loose hair. For fortune telling, they chose Ivan-da-Marya and compiled a set of “twelve herbs from twelve fields.” De) 45 Vushka characters put it under the pillow to see their betrothed. For divination, they looked for the weeping grass, which expels unclean forces, the overcoming grass, which overcomes all obstacles, the gaping grass, which opens all doors and locks, the elecampane, which helps to bewitch a loved one, the revaka, which protects “on the waters.” " Since collecting herbs was considered unclean, they had to be blessed in the church or secretly taken to the temple and the spell read: “Be afraid of the evil demons, the old witches of Kyiv. Drown them in tears, lock them in the pits of hell, keep my words with you firmly and firmly. Amen. Age of centuries! It was believed that on the day of Ivan Kupala, evil spirits actively manifest themselves. Therefore, Kupala night was considered the most favorable time for searching for treasures, which became visible for a short period of time. The treasures served as a kind of bait, with which demons and devils caught gullible people. A fantastic fern flower served as a talisman against evil spirits. They believed that it blooms in the middle of the night, in a deep forest, where one cannot hear the crow of a rooster. The person who manages to pick it will know the language of animals and birds, will see the power of plants, he will become aware of all the treasures, he will be able to turn into invisible. To get a wonderful flower and protect yourself from evil spirits, you had to come to the forest, sit on the ground, draw a circle around yourself and not move from the place, no matter how frightening the gathered evil spirits might be. Having picked a blossoming flower, one should make the sign of the cross on oneself and, without looking back, leave. The symbols and plots of Kupala rituals were repeatedly used in literary works (in N.V. Gogol’s story “The Night on the Eve of Ivan Kupala”, A. Mits)kiewicz’s poem “Dziady”). Lada Family deity, widespread in Slavic folklore. The most important goddess of the Slavic pantheon. Researchers have long believed that Lada is one of two birth goddesses. The roots of their origin) Lada (Zbruch idol) 46 Pagan religions are hidden in ancient times. Similar deities are found in the pantheons of almost all Indo-European peoples. M.V. Lomonosov compared Lada with Venus. To this day, in many places the ritual of the maiden's holiday, lyalnik, has been preserved. During it, the girls glorified the great deity and asked Lada for a good husband and a happy married life. People also turned to her after marriage and asked for personal benefits and protection. This is evidenced by the constant epithet of the goddess – “guardian”. The name Lada has always been accompanied by respectful epithets - Diva (Dido))Lada, Mati)Lada. The special status of Lada led to the multiplicity of holidays dedicated to her; they were celebrated six times a year, from the beginning of March to the end of June. Rituals associated with Lada are usually timed to coincide with the spring/summer cycle of holidays. In particular, it was Lada who was asked for permission to call on spring: Bless, mother Oh, mother, Lada, mother, call on spring. Then the goddess was addressed before the start of summer field work. The rest of the rituals were associated with the spring and summer cycle of prayers for rain, the festive first greenery, the first shoots, the first ears of corn: We pray, Lada, We pray to the highest God, Oh, Lada, oh, Let Lada blow, Let the quiet wind blow, May Lada strike, May the harvest rain strike! During the Red Hill holiday, the girls played the game “And we sowed millet, sowed.” It was held on a hill (red hill). All the players were divided into two groups - one sang about sowing millet, the other that “we will trample down the millet, trample down with what.” Trampling marked the completion of the entire cycle of grinding bread. Perhaps it was just such a game that was described by the chronicler, who noted that the Slavs “arranged games between the villages and snatched their wives.” The cycle of glorification of the goddess ended after the beginning of the earing of bread (in June), so the last holiday associated with Lada was the summer solstice. After 47, the characters of the Kupala festivities stop addressing Lada. The researchers also found that Lada was also approached to ensure the well-being of a future marriage. It would often happen that it was in the middle of summer that the decision to enter into a marriage was made, although the wedding took place much later, after the end of field work. Over time, games and zak)lykas dedicated to Lada passed into children's folklore and became games, losing their clear correlation with the ritual. In M. Gorky’s novel “The Case of the Ar) Tamonovs” (1925) there is a complete reproduction of what was preserved at the end of the 19th century. rite of worship of Lada. In fact, Lada, like Lel, belongs to the characters of “armchair” mythology. At a time when ethnography was just beginning to take shape as a science, scientists often saw the names of gods where they actually did not exist. The word from the chorus of the widespread girl's song And we sowed millet, sowed millet, Dido)lado sowed, sowed turned into the name of God. But since this name has entered Russian culture, we considered it necessary to talk about it in a separate article. Lel Spring deity of the ancient Slavs. In folk songs, Lel is a female character, and the main participants in the holiday dedicated to him were girls. The holiday "Lelnik" was usually celebrated on April 21, on the eve of Yuriev's day (Egoria's day). These days were also called “Red Hill”, since the scene of action was a hill located not far from the village. There, installing a small wooden or turf bench. They put a girl on it, who played the role of Lyalya (Leli). The semantics of the holiday is connected with the fact that St. George’s Day was the day of the first cattle pasture in the field. Similar holidays exist among a variety of peoples in Europe. In Italy they celebrate Primavera - the day of the first greenery; in Greece, since ancient times, they have been celebrating the return to earth of Persephone, the daughter of the fertility goddess Demeter. During the “Lelnik” celebration, offerings were placed on the bench to the right and left of 48 Pagan girls on the hill. On one side there was a loaf of bread, and on the other side there was a jug of milk, cheese, butter, egg and sour cream. Wok) around the bench, the girls laid out the wreaths they had woven. The girls danced around the bench and sang ritual songs in which they glorified the deity as a nurse and giver of the future harvest. While dancing and singing, a girl sitting on a bench put wreaths on her friends. Sometimes after the holiday, a fire (ole) was lit on the hill, around which they also danced in circles and sang a song: Lel burn, live, give birth, It’s fun for us, Lel has come, And brought spring to us. It is significant that the rituals dedicated to Lelya always lacked the funeral motif present in other summer holidays, for example, Rusalnaya Week and Ivan Kupala Day. Sometimes two girls, personifying women in labor, took part in the holiday dedicated to Lel. Probably, in this series the ancient idea has been preserved that the goddess of fertility in most myths is, as it were, divided into two characters. Echoes of this myth are preserved in the ancient Greek tale of Demeter and her daughter Persephone. However, over time, the true meaning of the holiday was gradually forgotten, and it turned into an ordinary summer holiday, with which girls celebrated the beginning of spring. Modern people associate the name Lelya with the fairy tale by A.N. Ostrovsky's "Snow Maiden", where Lel is presented in the image of a beautiful young man playing the pipe. In fact, Lel, like Lada, is a character of “armchair” mythology. At a time when ethnography was just beginning to take shape as a science, scientists often saw the names of gods where they actually did not exist. The word from the widespread refrain of the girl’s song And we sowed millet) sowed, Lely) Lely sowed, sowed turned into the name of God. Leshy Master of the forest and animals, the embodiment of the forest as a part of the world hostile to humans. 49 characters Forest spirits similar to the goblin are known in the folklore of other peoples. In Germany he is called Rübetzal, in the Caucasus - Dali, in the Far East - Hanka (forest man). In different regions of Russia, the goblin is also called differently. They say that foresters live in pine forests, and boletuses live in pine forests. In the North, they talk about the owner of mushrooms, moss, and berries. They are managed by Honest Forest. In Belarus, it is believed that in the depths of Pushcha, a huge virgin forest, the forest bush lives. He is shaggy, covered in moss, and as tall as a tall tree. In northern conspiracies, the head of the goblin is called Musa illes. The idea of ​​the owner of the forest goes back to ancient times, which led to the combination of human and animal features in the image of the goblin. He can turn into any animal or bird, but at the same time he is also engaged in traditional human activities - weaving baskets and bast shoes, playing cards, carving spoons. They say that he lives with his wife, a leshikha (other titles are lesovka or forest woman). Outwardly, the goblin looks like a person dressed in an animal skin. It is often endowed with other characteristics of an animal: tail, horns, hooves. A goblin can easily change its height, grow taller than trees or shrink below grass. In the forest, he behaves like a master: he drives animals from place to place, monitors the growth of trees, mushrooms and berries. The goblin is special but closely related to wolves. Like St. George, he is called the wolf's herd. The goblin is always hostile towards humans. Therefore, when getting into the forest, you need to be extremely careful so as not to accidentally find yourself at the mercy of the devil. It can frighten, lead into a remote thicket, or kill a hunter of prey. Goblins do a lot of digging in the forests) Leshy. Lubok has 50 numerous trails, but you should not walk along them - you can get lost or get sick. There are also stories about how goblins take girls lost in the forest to their place. The goblin is easy to recognize because the left side of his clothes is tucked over the right, his left boot is on his right foot, and his hat is on backwards. He walks through the forest and mutters to himself: “I walked, I found, I lost.” Having recognized the goblin, one had to pronounce a safety spell: “Sheep’s face, whose wool!” When the goblin realized that he had been recognized, he rushed into the bushes and disappeared shouting: “Ah, I guessed it!” It was also believed that every year on October 4, on the day of Erofey, goblins have a kind of holiday: they run through the forest, fight with each other, break trees with a crash and finally fall through the ground to reappear only in the spring. The goblin enjoyed special respect and even honor among hunters. While in the forest, they tried not to make noise and invariably left gifts for the devil in secluded places: not a lot of food or a glass of vodka. When meeting him, they gave him a pinch of tobacco or the entire pouch. Pagans before hunting or picking berries asked for permission: “Master, yushko, help me pick berries and not get lost.” To prevent the devil from touching the children, it was necessary to place a piece of bread wrapped in a clean rag on the stump and say: “King of the forest, accept our gift and low bow, and accept my little children and send them home.” In order not to anger the devil, one was not supposed to make noise or whistle in the forest. When angry, a goblin can “circle” a person, i.e. make you wander through the forest, lead you into a quagmire, or pull off your hat. The mother of cheese is the earth. According to popular beliefs, one of the main components of the universe (together with water, air and fire). The earth was considered the embodiment of the reproductive power of nature, which is why it was likened to a woman. The land fertilized by rain yielded crops, fed people, and helped continue the family line. Therefore, in conspiracies the formula was often used: “Earth is the mother, heaven is the father,” for example: “God thou, raw characters, earth, mother! You are our dear mother, you gave birth to us all.” Traces of the deification of the earth were reflected in the most ancient funeral rituals. During archaeological excavations, skeletons were discovered laid in the pose of a newborn. Probably, the funeral was accepted as the return of the deceased to the mother's womb. Echoes of the ritual are also visible in the custom of putting on clean underwear in anticipation of imminent danger or death. This is, in particular, what sailors do during a strong storm. The land that received the deceased was considered miraculous, so those present at the funeral sought to lay their hands on it in order to cleanse themselves of possible future misfortunes. Traces of the ritual have been preserved in our time: during funerals it is customary to throw a handful of earth onto the coffin lowered into the grave. The fertility of the earth and abundant rains depended on the ancestors lying in the ground. They turned to their ancestors for help in a variety of cases. Over time, a custom developed of visiting graves, as well as eating at them, accompanied by the obligatory invitation of 51 ancestors. The custom of presenting Easter eggs to the stones has survived to this day. They also turned to the earth during illness and asked it for healing. There was another custom: if you committed a sin, you could repent in the holy land. The likeness of the earth to a living creature is manifested in the fact that in winter the earth falls asleep, in spring it awakens. After the adoption of Christianity, the image of Mother Earth became closer to the image of the Mother of God, gradually developing into the cult of the Mother of God of the earth, while the suffering of the earth and at the same time her love for man were constantly emphasized. The idea was reflected in the ancient wish for the earth: “Be healthy like a fish, beautiful like water, cheerful like spring, hardworking like a bee and rich like the holy land.” It was believed that the earth had name days, which were celebrated on Spiritual Day. On this day, it was strictly forbidden to plow, harrow, or generally do any earthwork, such as sticking stakes into the ground. The second festival of the earth was celebrated on the day of Simon the Zealot (May 11). Probably his choice of 52 was due to the fact that on May 10, according to the Christian calendar, the spring holiday of Nicholas (Nicholas the Great), who in the folk calendar was considered the patron saint of earthly businessmen, was celebrated. The understanding of the earth as holy was also manifested in the idea that its righteous depths do not accept sorcerers, suicides and criminals. Back in the 19th century. cases were recorded when, during a drought that lasted for several months, drowned people were dug out of the ground. There is also a well-known episode of the epic “Dobrynya and the Serpent,” in which the hero asks the earth to accept the blood of the serpent he defeated in order to prevent him from being reborn. The oath to the earth was considered the most reliable. So, in order to seal the boundary of the site, there was a special ritual: a person put a piece of turf on his head and walked along the boundary with it. The border he laid was considered inviolable and indestructible, since it was protected by the earth itself. In a work of the 11th century. the famous Christian saint Gregory the Theologian recognized the inviolability of this oath. It is connected with reverence for the land, but also the idea of ​​the homeland. Pagan When leaving on a long journey, people often took with them a handful of their native land and carried it on their chest in an amulet as a talisman protecting them from possible misfortunes. In case of death in a foreign land, the earth was placed together with the deceased in the grave. The remains of the ritual have been preserved to this day. Having returned from exile, many kneel down and kiss the ground. It is known that the Pope always does this when he comes to any country for the first time. The mothers of Soviet soldiers who died abroad also scattered soil from their homeland on their graves. Maslenitsa is a pagan holiday dedicated to seeing off the passing winter and the arrival of solar warmth, awakening the fertile power of the earth. In the Christian calendar, the timing of Maslenitsa fluctuated depending on the day of Easter, which was preceded by the seven-week Lent. Maslenitsa was celebrated in the eighth week before Easter. Maslenitsa was represented in the form of a straw effigy, usually dressed in women's clothing. At the beginning of the week, 53 characters, i.e., put him on a sleigh, and drove him around the village with song: Maslenitsa) tortuous, Give us a good ride, Ay lyuli) lyuli, good, Maslenitsa - Kurguzka, After you we will sad... Often the songs were like glorification: they sang about the holy and honest Maslenitsa, Maslenitsa dishes and entertainment: Our annual Maslenitsa, She is a dear guest, She does not come to us on foot, Everyone rides around on komony, So that the horses are black. So that the servants were young... The glorification was usually ironic, Maslenitsa was called a dear guest and was portrayed as a young, elegant woman (Avdotyushka Izotievna, Akulina Savvishna). Then the scarecrow was placed in an open place and celebrations began around it. Each day of Maslenitsa week had its own name: meeting - Monday; for) toy – Tuesday; gourmand - Wednesday yes; revelry, turning point, wide Thursday - Thursday; mother-in-law ve) cherki – Friday; sisters-in-law as nurses - Saturday; farewells, farewells, forgiven day - Sunday. Maslenitsa week itself was called cheese week, syrnitsa. Initially, on Maslenitsa they ate “white” food: milk, butter, sour cream, cheese. Pancakes appeared as a funeral food (depicting the sun, pancakes symbolized the afterlife, which, according to the ancient ideas of the Slavs, correlated with the sun, which descended there at night). The first Maslenitsa pancake was dedicated to deceased ancestors; it was left on the window or taken to the cemetery. Funeral motifs are also reflected in the closeness of the melody of Maslenitsa songs to funeral lamentations. Typical for Maslenitsa are extraordinary feasts, an abundance of dishes, ritual overeating with drinking strong drinks, Maslenitsa. Lubok 54 fun and even revelry symbolized the prosperity that was to come in the beginning of the year. The abundance of fatty (“oily”) food gave the holiday its name. Maslenitsa was considered a holiday of youth and fertile strength, so young married couples were always congratulated at this time. The young were considered welcome guests: they went to visit their father-in-law and mother-in-law, showed themselves to the people in their best clothes (stood in rows on both sides of the village street). They were forced to kiss in front of everyone. The young people had to communicate their vitality to the earth, to “awaken” its maternal principle. Therefore, in many places newlyweds, and sometimes girls of marriageable age, were buried in the snow, in straw, or rolled in the snow with ritual laughter. On Thursday (or Friday) the wide Mas Lenitsa began. At this time they rode down the icy mountains, and later on horses. The festive train in honor of Maslenitsa (a string of cars with horses harnessed to them) in some places ran up to several hundred cars. In ancient times, skating had a special pagan meaning: it was supposed to help the movement of the sun. Fist fights were considered popular entertainment. They usually gathered in groups - entire streets or parts of the village. In the Siberian regions, the game “taking a snow fortress” was popular, which took place on a river or in a field. They built a kind of fortress out of snow with a wall as tall as a man. Young people walked around her, played snowballs, and rode on sleighs. Then the line of sleighs whooped and flew into the snow fortress, showered with a hail of snowballs. On Maslenitsa, costumed bears and goats also walked through the streets; men dressed up as “women” and vice versa. Pets, goats and horses were also dressed up in pants or skirts. Maslenitsa week ended with a “farewell” - with the burning of Maslenitsa. On Sunday, the stuffed animal was carried along the street, then taken outside the village and burned (sometimes thrown into the river or torn and scattered across the field). During the ritual, they sang reproachful songs (and later ditties), in which Maslenitsa was reproached for leaving too quickly and bringing Lent with her: 55 characters And we saw off Maslenitsa We sighed heavily for her: A maslana, maslana, come back, reach out to the Great Day2. Maslenitsa was awarded with offensive nicknames: “wettail”, “wry neck”, “licker”, “pancake eater”. When parting with Maslenitsa, women feigned tears and even performed mock funeral laments. The custom of burning Maslenitsa is connected with the fact that it represents the thief of winter, death, and cold. With the onset of spring, it was necessary to get rid of it: Maslenitsa) wet tail, Get out of the yard. Your time has come! In some places, they did not make effigies; instead, they burned bonfires, which were placed in a high place, and in the middle of them, an old cart wheel was fixed on a pole - when it lit up, it seemed like an image of the sun. The fire circle symbolized the sun and contributed to the arrival of warmth and spring. The day of seeing off Maslenitsa came on Forgiveness Sunday. In the evening of this day, the fun stopped, and everyone asked forgiveness from relatives and friends for their sins in the past year. They tried to make peace between families and apologize for the insults caused. The godchildren visited their godfather and mother. People seemed to be cleansed of insults and filth. In the evening, on the eve of Clean Monday (the first day of Lent), they washed the dishes from fast food and washed in the baths in order to meet the beginning of Lent, which was supposed to last seven weeks, until Easter. Mokosh is the only female deity in the ancient Russian pantheon. Mokosh was usually represented in the form of a woman with a large head and long arms. Her image is found, for example, on embroidery. To date, the main functions of the deity have not been clarified. Probably, initially Mokosh was the goddess of water, rain and was responsible for fertility, but over time the image of Mokosha became associated with traditional women’s occupations - Hardly important - strongly, Great day - Easter. 56 Pagan spinning and weaving. Researchers have established that the name of the goddess goes back to the Indo-European root that began spinning. Gradually, from a cosmic deity, Mokosh turned into the patroness of the house. The peasant women were afraid to anger Mokosh and made sacrifices to her. If Mokosh could be appeased, she would help the spinners and even spin herself at night. The cat could punish the careless housewife: mix up the left tow or start making noise at night. Later, some functions of the Mo)koshi were transferred to the kikimora. With the adoption of Christianity, faith in Mokosh began to be persecuted: having come to confession to the priest, the woman had to answer whether she had gone to Mokosh. In the Christian pantheon, the goddess Mokosh was replaced by the holy great martyr Paraskeva. The temple of Mokosha On the day of remembrance, it received the popular name Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, it was also called Linen. Paraska) ve sacrificed the first sheaves of flax and the first woven pieces of cloth. At the end of the 19th century, when starting work, Ukrainian spinners performed the Mok-rida ritual - they threw pieces of tow into the well. The connection with Mokoshi’s water comes from the external similarity of the name with the Slavic root “wet”. However, the main function of the goddess was still determined by her connection with household work. Navii In Slavic mythology, a collective image of deceased ancestors. Probably, navias were originally the name given to the dead who sailed to the kingdom of the dead on a funeral boat. Navii are invisible and always hostile to humans. Thus, the “Tale of Bygone Years” tells how hordes of invisible Navii attacked Polotsk, and an epidemic broke out there, claiming many lives. The holiday associated with Navia, called Navsky Velik, was celebrated on Thursday at 57 characters during Easter week, and also at the beginning of autumn. It was believed that on this day the Navi come out of their graves and go to their descendants for a funeral meal. For the navi, a special treat was prepared, which was placed on the table in the room, then the windows were opened. In order not to disturb the Navii, it was strictly forbidden to go outside after sunset. A special protective ritual was used against navi. If the navi caused harm, it was necessary to dig up the grave of the deceased and remove from it the “nav bone” - the only bone of the deceased that had not decomposed over time. The point was supposed to be burned, and the point was to be thrown back into the grave. Then Navia will disappear and begin to disturb the living again. Polovtsians are hiding from the “navi” in their mansions. Miniature from the Radzivilov Chronicle (1092) Southern and Western Slavs did not believe that the Navi could determine the fate of a child. They believed that invisible nawis gathered at the bedside of a woman in labor and decided whether the child would live or die. A navyi doomed to death was given an invisible “navy sign.” Over time, the cult of Navii became associated with the veneration of the clan, and even the holiday itself received the name Radunitsa. The image of navy was widely used in Russian literature, in particular, in the works of F. Sologub: in the novel “Drops of Blood” (original title “Navy Chary”) and some stories about children. Barn A mythological character who lives in a barn - a special building where sheaves were dried and bread was threshed. To do this, the sheaves brought from the field were carefully laid in rows, after which a fire was built in a specially dug hole - a crawl space. The heated smoke rose upward and dried the sheaves. After drying was completed, the sheaves were threshed in a barn or a special structure - a threshing floor. The appearance of the barn is characterized by duality: 58 Pagan ones: it combines the features of man and animal. Usually the ovinnik appeared in the form of a huge black cat or dog: “his eyes burn with hot coals, like a cat’s, and he himself looks like a huge cat, all black and shaggy,” but most often he is described as a humanoid creature , covered with long black hair. Ovinnik could only be seen during Bright Matins on Christ's day (Easter). The barn dweller lives in the “podla”, a pit where the barn is heated, together with his wife, the barn-keeper. From there, he makes sure that the sheaves brought from the field are neatly stacked in rows on top of each other, and that the firewood burns evenly and does not produce sparks. To deserve the good) inclination of the guilty man, one had to constantly please him