The psychology of gender differences briefly. Main gender differences
With the differences between men and women, a person encounters daily, they are obvious to everyday consciousness. However, the psychology of gender differences defines them as complexly determined phenomena, where the conditionality of the influence of gender is difficult to determine and prove.
The history of the psychology of gender differences (or the psychology of comparing men and women) reflects the evolution of ideas about gender in the humanities and psychology. These representations unequivocally link the mental differences of the sexes with biological or social determinants.
For supporters of biological determination, sexual differentiation is a universal biological process, its starting point is biological sexual dimorphism, which is supplemented and built on by a system of mental differences and manifests itself in a certain set of individual differences in psychophysiological reactions, cognitive processes, abilities, interests, behavioral manifestations of men and women. The argumentation in this approach centers around anatomical, morphological, and physiological features: hormonal differences, development of the cerebral hemispheres, body size, muscle mass, etc.
In one of the first of its kind - the metabolic concept of Alfred Fulier (1838-1912), psychological differences are associated with metabolic processes in the organisms of men and women. In the body of a woman, anabolic processes proceed more intensively, including an orientation towards nutrition, integration, energy conservation and forming a picture of their behavior, expressed in the desire for peace, the accumulation of strength. Catabolic processes, more related to reproduction, disintegration, energy expenditure, more developed in men, determine the pattern of male behavior and explain their intense muscular and intellectual expenditure. The highly developed reactions of excitation in men and inhibition in women, derived from metabolic processes, determine further gender differences.
Fulier considered the facts of differences at the prepsychic (cellular, embryonic, morphological, physiological) and mental (features of animal behavior, differences in temperaments, emotionality, love and motherhood, mental abilities, perception, memory and learning, mental pathologies) levels.
The modern theory of D. Broverman and co-authors proves that the differences are stimulated by hormones - estrogens and androgens. The authors show that women are better able to solve problems, defined in terms of the speed and accuracy of their implementation, men - the ability to solve problems, defined in terms of "insight". These differences, according to the authors, are psychophysiological and not social, since they are even confirmed by animal studies.
The effect of androgens on brain structures is indicated by the neuroandrogenetic approach. The influence of sex hormones lies in their feminizing or masculinizing function, which, in turn, controls behavior. With such an explanation, androgenization sets the program for male behavior, the signs of which are: 1) offensive erotic behavior; 2) aggressive behavior; 3) spatial orientation; 4) territorial behavior; 5) endurance of pain sensations; 6) slow assimilation of defensive conditioned reflexes; 7) weak manifestation of emotional reactions in response to a threat; 8) persistence when performing a task without reinforcement; 9) weak connection with the closest relatives; 10) group behavior; 11) search activity; 12) "predatory" behavior associated with hunting.
Supporters of the theory of functionalism (T. Parsons, R. Belz) spoke about the positive function of gender differentiation, defining differences from the nature of gender roles performed. A woman's ability to bear children and care for children determines her expressive role, while a man becomes her instrumental partner: it is impossible to radically change this differentiation.
One of the most influential theories of differences is the psychoanalytic concept, which declared the sexual instinct the driving force behind the development of the psyche (3. Freud, K. G. Jupg, A. Adler, K. Horney, and others). Psychoanalysts attribute the main role in sexual differentiation to biological factors, emphasizing the importance of emotions and the ability to imitate adults, and consider the process of identifying a child with parents in a situation of family relationships as the main mechanism for differences.
In traditional psychoanalysis, male and female models behaviors are diametrically opposed in their qualities, and the personality then develops harmoniously and fully when it follows the intended models. The model of typical male behavior is manifestations of aggressiveness, activity, striving to achieve a goal, rationality, determination, ability to creative activity. Typically female behavior is characterized by passivity, dependence, high emotionality, weakness of social interests, indecision, conformity, inability to think logically and creativity, lack of desire for achievements and a sense of justice, predisposition to envy.
The idealization of traditional gender roles, the statement that deviations from the standards of masculinity and femininity are tragic for the development of the personality were subsequently criticized and revised. In particular, studies by E. McCoby and K. Jacklip have shown that the high femininity of women often correlates with increased anxiety, low self-esteem, highly feminine women and highly masculine men have worse adaptive capabilities. Children whose behavior matches gender expectations often have lower intelligence and less creativity. J. Stockard and M. Johnson argued that psychoanalytic standards cannot be ideal models for modern men and women, since the traditional understanding of femininity makes a girl a bad mother - helpless, dependent, passive.
The need for a clear distinction between actual gender differences and gender differences that underlie gender-role behavior formed the basis of concepts that consider differences through the prism of socio-cultural determinism. Social approach theories view gender in terms of social categories and constructions.
From the point of view of neo-Marxists, the inequality of gender roles and the behavior of the sexes is rooted in the class structure of society, which excludes freedom of behavior and choice of role. Anthropological studies prove that the distribution of labor activity and the type of human behavior are not biologically differentiated. Social roles determine the mode of production characteristic of a given society and the social relations of people. In particular, the works of X. Hartman examine the complex links between capitalism, patriarchy and the economic structure of society.
The theory of social learning (A. Bandura, R. Walters) draws attention to the reinforcement of gender behavior from the external environment. The main principle of learning is the differentiation of behavior through observation, reward for gender-appropriate behavior, punishment for inappropriate behavior. This theory emphasizes the influence of socialization agents, the microenvironment and social norms on the external sexual behavior of the child.
The theory of sexual typification attaches decisive importance to reinforcement mechanisms. Girls and boys receive positive reinforcement for gender-appropriate feminine or masculine behavior: the individual “learns to distinguish patterns of behavior differentiated by sex, then generalize this particular experience to new situations, and, finally, follow the appropriate rules” (W. Michel).
Similar specific descriptions of behavior typical for boys and girls are given by supporters of the theory of cognitive development. They consider differences and gender-role characteristics of behavior as a consequence of the assimilation of cognitive structures, the processing of cognitive information about the characteristics of gender behavior and the irreversibility of gender identity (L. Kohlberg, S. Thompson). The presence of early gender differences is explained not by biological instincts and not by arbitrary norms of culture, but by the organization of the cognitive sphere of the child in accordance with his gender role and manifestations of his self-categorization (assigning himself to a certain gender by the child). Gender differences here are formed as the child acquires information about the world and his place in it, in the process of learning and assimilation of moral norms, and the mechanism of the process of gender self-determination is the need to maintain a stable and positive self-image and adapt to the surrounding reality.
An extensive experimental base of studies of gender differences indicates that evidence of fundamental innate differences in the psychological characteristics of men and women is not enough to justify the traditional inequality of social roles that exists in society (W. Maccoby, W. Jacklin). The study of anatomical and physiological parameters (chromosomal set, balance of male and female hormones, etc.) and the factor of attributing oneself to one sex or another showed a direct correlation between them, however, even for children with anatomical and physiological inclinations of both sexes, the factor of attributing oneself is decisive to one or another gender (D. Mani,
A. Erhard). S. Bem's studies have shown that, contrary to the prevailing views on gender-typical characteristics, androgyny, the presence of traits of both sexes, affects the adaptation of individuals.
Gender studies in Russia, as well as in the West, until the mid-1990s. positioned as a field of gender psychology. B. G. Ananiev noted that the main, most fundamental differences in the mental activity of people are the differences due to age and gender. Sexual dimorphism - anatomical differences between representatives of the same biological species - determines in the human psyche the main determinants of individual differences, the specifics of interpersonal interaction, the nature of internal experiences and emotional reactions, attitude towards oneself and others, motivation, role behavior, etc.
The theory of sexual dimorphism, which explains the mechanism of the evolutionary process, was formulated by the Russian scientist V. A. Geodakyan in the 1960s, and continues to be developed at the present time. According to this theory, the differentiation of the behavior of male and female individuals is evolutionarily expedient, genetically fixed in the corresponding psychophysical organization: in the formation of the genetic fund of the population, the female sex belongs to a greater extent to express the tendency of heredity, and the male gender - variability, which is a form of informational contact with the species that is beneficial for the species. environment .
The female sex is considered as a stable core of the population, the male sex is its "mobile" shell, new information from the environment first enters the male subsystem, where the changes taking place are sketched out. If the external conditions have sufficient strength and evolutionary feasibility, new genetic tendencies are formed that can be passed on to offspring. The evolution of any trait in the male sex begins and ends earlier than in the female sex, i.e. a new trait in phylogenesis appears first in the male sex, then after many generations it is transmitted to the female sex. According to the genetics of sex, men are carriers of evolving traits, and women are conservative. The magnitude of the variation of any signs in men is greater than in women, with equal mean values.
The provisions of this theory can explain many facts of the greater vulnerability of the male than the female. Statistics show that out of 100 girls and 107 boys born, the same 100 girls and 95 boys survive to the age of 30. Women have a longer (8-10 years) life expectancy, suffer less from hereditary diseases. Men are 4.5 times more likely to die from infectious diseases, 5 times more likely to die from injuries and poisoning, and much more often from malignant tumors.
The spread of congenital signs and developmental variants in men is also significantly greater than in women. Men have more beneficial and harmful genetic abnormalities. Thus, for every 100 deaf girls, there are 122 deaf boys. Deviations in color vision are also more common in boys. Among children with strabismus, stuttering, dyslalia, delayed mental development also significantly more boys. Speech therapy groups of kindergartens, groups for children with special developmental needs mostly consist of boys. Among boys, there are more of both mentally retarded and gifted.
The theory of V. A. Geodakyan does not oppose the masculine and feminine principles as “the best and the worst”, but, on the contrary, emphasizes the complementarity in their relationship, the need for interaction. Continuing this idea,
V. P. Bagrunov established that species and individual variability of psychological functions is an essential factor in sexual dimorphism. Thus, the species variability of sensorimotor and intellectual functions is higher in men, and individual - in women. In men, a high dispersion of indicators of these functions is more often observed. Men have a greater ability to solve new problems, but women achieve better results when stereotyping these types of activities. All this indicates that men are characterized by great species variability, which creates the preconditions for the emergence of new forms of behavior; women are characterized by a large species rigidity, which determines the safety of the gene pool of the population. However, at the level of individuality, the sensorimotor and intellectual functions of men are rigid, which contributes to the transmission useful information into the gene pool, while women are characterized by individual variability, which ensures more reliable adaptation in the environment.
These conclusions demonstrate the impossibility of direct substantiation of the mental qualities of men and women by their anatomical and physiological characteristics, moreover, they do not allow reducing the patterns and mechanisms for the development of gender characteristics only to biological or social determinants. Sexual dichotomy manifests itself at all levels of a person's mental organization, i.e. gender differences are a biosocial problem.
Differences are formed at the embryonic stage of development and are the basis for gender identification. Gender differences include differences in subjective attitudes, norms, values, interests, social roles that are acquired and manifested in the process of socialization in boys and girls. There are no absolute differences between the sexes in terms of severity; within each sex there are significant differences in all anatomical, physiological, psychological and socio-psychological characteristics.
In modern gender psychology, the direction of a comprehensive, systematic study of the psychology of gender differences (multi- and multidisciplinary), which implies the unity of the study of biological, social and psychological factors, is actively developing (I. V. Groshev, L. N. Ozhigova, A. A. Chekalina). “Gender differences represent one of the most integrative systems covering all levels of human activity (from spontaneous non-verbal motor activity to complex social species behavior and activity), they act as a factor of integrity and as one of the basal components of the natural foundations of the potentials of the subject of activity.
Returning to understanding the differences from the point of view of the gender approach, which distinguishes between the concepts of sex and gender, let us consider the empirical facts and patterns accumulated in science.
1. Psychophysiological differences. Studies of certain characteristics of gender differences revealed in young men a higher speed of simple visual, as well as complex auditory sensorimotor reactions. The difference between a complex and a simple sensorimotor reaction lies in the complication of the process of processing information, the processes of signal recognition and spatial coordination (E. N. Yakunina and others).
The time of a simple sensorimotor reaction characterizes the speed of the onset and disappearance of excitation and inhibition, the maximum frequency of generation of nerve impulses, which is a criterion for the excitability of the central nervous system. Complex sensorimotor reactions characterize the rate of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system, the ability for differentiated inhibition and the accuracy of the work performed. The speed of the motor reaction to sensorimotor stimuli in young men is higher than in girls (D. Z. Shibkova), the accuracy of the reaction to a moving object depends on the strength of the nervous system and the functional mobility of the nervous processes. Advantages in speed characteristics are accompanied by a large number of errors in the differentiation of visual stimuli (A. V. Zaitsev).
Other studies also point to differences in the psychomotor sphere. Boys and girls differ significantly in each of the individual properties of neurodynamics: strength, mobility, lability (LD Moshkina). In general, women are less reactive, excitable and labile, men have somewhat greater sensitivity, reactivity in response to weak sound signals (B. G. Ananiev).
Studies of the structure and properties of temperament confirm the ideas of significant gender differences in the properties of activity, emotionality, adaptive functions (D. Carson, T. McNeill, I. Person-Blesnow,
S. Ashadi). A number of studies have found differences only in the properties of emotionality in women (I. Goodair) or their total absence (R. Guerin, A. Gottfried, K. Keenan, R. Shaw). Some studies draw attention to the absence of gender differences in the structure of temperament in childhood and their presence in adulthood (A. Sanson).
In the studies of V. M. Rusalov, objective differences were established in terms of subject plasticity, subject ergicity and individual tempo, which are more pronounced in men; indicators of scales of emotionality, social plasticity are more pronounced in women. No gender differences were found on the scales of social ergicity and social tempo. However, in the studies of this scientist, there is a lack of clearly defined differences in the structure of temperament, which indirectly confirms the influence of social conditions, learning, which affect the development of psychodynamic properties.
Differences in the psychophysiological sphere revealed the advantages of girls when performing small movements and operations, the accuracy and clarity of differentiation of muscle tension of low strength, manifested in adolescence. In the studies of B. G. Ananiev, a smoother development of the psychomotor functions of the hands in girls was found, which indicates a greater stability of the induction relationship between both hemispheres of the girls' brain. However, in the dynamics of the working day, the girls show signs of greater fatigue (N.V. Makarenko). Boys excel in the integration of speed and accuracy of psychomotor skills, solve sensorimotor tasks better, but are inferior to girls in the manifestation of the training effect and in solving stereotypical tasks (V. I. Bagrunov).
Research by L. A. Golovey found gender differences in psychomotor indicators closely related to the energy functions of the body (strength, tremor, muscle tone), as well as in indicators reflecting the temporal organization of movements (walking). In terms of speed and accuracy of performing graphic movements, no gender differences were found.
Both girls and boys have their own characteristics of self-regulation of various functional systems (D. V. Berdnikov, V. V. Plotnikov, L. V. Koneva), for example, the accuracy and stability of the assessment of tone duration and spatio-temporal parameters of the test object , sensitivity to additional information in this process, plasticity and learning.
The results of comparative studies of gender differences in psychophysiological functions cannot be considered sufficiently representative due, firstly, to a limited sample, and secondly, the impossibility of generalizing them, since they are devoted to various manifestations (for example, motor behavior accessible to external observation, solving experimental motor tasks, graphic movements , technique of working movements, tremor, psychomotor reactions, etc.) and various characteristics. It is also logical to assume that the nervous system of men and women specialized in the process of adaptation to certain living conditions in the course of evolutionary development.
2. Psychological level of differences. The most revealing are the results of comparative studies of gender differences in psychological characteristics. Men have an advantage in visual-spatial and mathematical thinking, women are more successful in verbal and intuitive information processing (T. V. Vinogradova, V. V. Semenov).
Gender studies of intellectual development compare indicators of mnemonic processes: young men have more developed spatial memory; in girls, the ease of memorizing verbal material prevails.
The levels of development of figurative thinking in the period of maturity differ: in men it has a higher level of development and correlates with memory, attention, mood, in women figurative thinking is less developed and interacts with emotional sphere and attention (N. M. Peisakhov).
Gender differences are manifested in the qualitative characteristics of intellectual activity. The general intelligence of young men has a clearly defined structure with the dominance of the non-verbal component, in contrast to the more poorly integrated intelligence of girls. The main differences in adolescence lie in the effectiveness thought processes formed due to indicators of inductive thinking (I. O. Chorayan).
Men are characterized by field independence, i.e. more often they demonstrate behavior independent of the field, which is manifested in a predominant orientation towards their own goal and in ignoring the pressure of the current situation. Women's field dependence positively correlates with success in social interaction (J. Levy, W. Heller).
Studies of the types of search and decision-making reveal that impulsive decisions and decisions with risk are more common in men, cautious and balanced decisions in women (B. G. Ananiev).
Girls are superior in selectivity, stability and attention span. Young men solve sensorimotor and intellectual tasks better, however, with a certain training, the differences are smoothed out. In some of the works, researchers come to conclusions about the predominance of the parameters of mathematical and abstract thinking in young men.
Under conditions of intellectual load, the features of changes in the success of volitional effort are revealed, indicating faster recovery processes in a stressful situation in women, the success of volitional effort in general in men compared to women.
3. Data on personal and socio-psychological differences in the mental manifestations of girls and boys are rather contradictory. The list of gender differences includes differences in partial intellectual abilities, differences in the sphere of emotions and motivations, a variety of characterological and personal manifestations.
In studies of emotional processes in women, compared with males, the understanding of emotions prevails (IN Andreeva, S. Bern, G. Orme). Women are better at recognizing expressive information. Otherwise, the differences are more qualitative than quantitative. Men and women equally experience certain events, demonstrate identical physiological reactions. However, they explain the causes of emotions in different ways, in accordance with their gender role. The general level of emotional intelligence in girls is associated with cognitive processes of understanding and comprehension of emotions, in boys - to a greater extent with the quality of interpersonal relationships (IN Andreeva).
Comparison of women and men reveals differences in some personal indicators (in self-affirmation, the ability to defend one's rights), the ability to manage stress (in stress tolerance, control of impulsiveness) and adaptability (in determining credibility, the process of problem solving). Among the main personality traits in men, aggressiveness, achievement motive, emotional stability are more pronounced, and in women - social orientation. The social behavior of women and men also differs. Men demonstrate greater aggression and a tendency to competitive forms of social interaction. Women are disposed towards iro-social behavior.
In the studies of E. Maccoby, K. Jacklin, S. E. Cross, L. Madson and others, a greater open physical aggressiveness of boys and men was established in comparison with girls and women. Women are more likely to use covert verbal and indirect aggression. The specificity of manifestations of aggressiveness is expressed in a much more pronounced instrumental ™ of young men, their greater propensity for physical aggression and less reflexivity. The aggressive behavior of girls is rather voluntary and instrumental; in boys it is external in nature (T.V. Nechipurenko).
In the formation of the character of adolescents and youth, there are differences that manifest themselves in the intellectual-cognitive, emotional-volitional and communicative spheres, as well as in the features of the formation of their gender identity (A.F. Filatova). The system-forming character traits for modern adolescent boys are dominance, social maturity and the expression of values; for girls - behavioral activity, social adapted ™ and expression of values.
Volitional character traits responsible for self-regulation of behavior also reflect gender specificity. Conscious regulation includes a number of mandatory conditions: overcoming obstacles encountered on the way, a high degree of motivation to complete the action, confidence in choosing the main motive, finding the meaning of the action, positive emotions, competent selection of ways to achieve goals. Gender differences were revealed in manifestations of perseverance, riskiness, self-control (N. G. Makarova).
Of particular interest is the problem of differences in character accentuations. The feminine type (in both iols) more often demonstrates emogative accentuation (which is interpreted as "effeminate"), the masculine type - a stuck type of accentuations (characterized as a desire to achieve high results). M. K. Omarova, on the basis of impressive experimental material, revealed that young men significantly more often than girls have eileptoid and hyperthymic types of character accentuation, and girls have labile and psychasthenic types. The rest of the types are presented in those and others almost equally.
The features of social perception differ, in particular in the perception of lies, untruth and deceit by women and men (V. V. Znakov,
O. V. Barsukova), perception of advertising (I. V. Groshev), power and influence (I. V. Groshev), perception of facial expression (A. M. Beloborodov), appearance, clothing style and hairstyle (M. V. Burakova, V. A. Labunskaya), attitudes towards success (G. V. Turetskaya), etc. E. P. Ilyin provides data on differences in hardiness, developmental anomalies and morbidity in men and women.
The list of differences is extensive and varied; it is not possible to consider all indicators of gender specificity. Researchers pay attention to their dynamism, social and cultural conditionality, dependence on the nature and content of an individual's activity. Many of the existing differences in the personality traits of people of different sexes are amenable to change in the course of education, with a change in lifestyle and social expectations. The result of differential gender socialization is the development of gender consciousness and identity, the appropriation of gender stereotypes, behavior and communication. The role of cultural and social factors is exceptionally great.
The difficulty of detecting gender specificity is due not only to the versatility of the tasks that women and men solve, the variability of their behavior, which allows or does not allow to detect differences, but also the conditions for conducting psychological analysis (the gender of the experimenter, his stereotypes), the importance of learning technologies. Adequate, based on the differentiation of opportunities, training significantly changes the comparative results. I. S. Klyotsina gives an example of a comparative analysis of the results of testing the spatial relations of American high school students, which showed that over the past twenty years, the spatial abilities of girls have increased significantly in the context of specialized gender-oriented education.
So, summarizing the results of studying the psychological differences between men and women, we can state the following.
An active study of gender differences has shown, on the one hand, their stability, on the other hand, a tendency to smooth out. The listed differences between male and female representatives are no more than 10%; in most cases, the distributions of male and female samples coincide.
Gender plays a huge role in the life of every person, determining the pace and eventfulness of the social activity of the individual, his speed of reaction and the degree of adaptability to social transformations. Scientists state that the formation of morphological and functional differences between the male and female brain is determined by the influence of sex hormones, starting from the prenatal period and throughout all periods of life. This mediates the formation of psychological differences. Gender differences ensure the integrity of the mechanism of mental regulation of behavior and personality activity at the hormonal-chromosomal level, in the interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain, motor characteristics, psychophysiological properties and temperamental characteristics (I. V. Groshev). Sex-role dimorphism and differentiation determine the features of the development of personal qualities.
See: Maccoby E. E. Jacklin C. N. The Psychology of sex differences. Standford, Calif., 1974.
Psychologists began to study gender differences at the end of the 19th century, but until the 1970s. they were mostly engaged in demonstrating the differences between the sexes and substantiating this different attitude to men and women (Denmark & Fernandez, 1993).
However, it must be remembered that, even if such differences are found, they are relatively small, usually no more than 10%, and in most cases the distributions of male and female samples coincide by 90% (Basow, 1986; Hyde, 1991; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Pleck, 1978; Spens et al., 1974).
As Hyde (1991) noted, when we say that there is a significant difference between men and women on a certain trait, this does not necessarily mean that the difference is large.
Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines information from several studies to arrive at an overall estimate of the magnitude of differences between groups; in other words, it is an analysis of the results of other analyzes (detailed descriptions and discussions involving mathematical statisticians can be found in Glass et al., 1981; Hyde & Linn, 1986; Rosenthal, 1991.)
Empathy and Gender Differences
Despite the lack of evidence for gender differences in empathy, Hall's (1984) analysis of 125 studies of gender differences in sensitivity to nonverbal cues found:
- women in general have a better ability to read the emotions of others than men.
If women are better at deciphering, then it would be logical to expect that their level of empathy is higher (Eysenberg et al., 1989).
However, let's not forget that most studies have found no gender differences in empathy, and if they did, they were very weak.
Emotionality and gender differences
Eisenberg and co-authors (Eisenberg et al., 1989) found rather modest gender differences in the mimic index and self-report of the subjects, which speak in favor of women's greater responsiveness.
One of the most interesting findings is that gender differences increased with age.
In children before school age very few gender differences were found, but by the second grade they began to appear more and more openly.
Other studies involving adolescents (Stapley & Haviland, 1989), college students (Snell, 1989), and adults (Saurer & Eisler, 1990) have found that women are more emotionally expressive than men.
These studies, especially those that locate major turning points in childhood, suggest that in the process of socialization we learn to express or suppress emotions in socially acceptable ways.
In our society, there are different expectations and norms regarding emotional expression for men and women. These different expectations are passed on to us throughout our lives.
Research (Brody, 1985; Eisenberg et al., 1989) does show that sex differences in emotionality are generally more pronounced in adolescents and adults than in children. It takes time to create them.
This gives grounds to say (Sh. Bern, 2001) that emotionality (i.e., the strength of experienced emotions) in men and women is the same, but the degree of their external expression (emo/facial expression) is different.
Anger (anger) in men and women
E. Maccoby and C. Jacklin (E. Maccoby, C. Jacklin, 1974), based on the analysis of a number of experimental studies, came to the conclusion that in the first years of life there are no differences in the frequency and duration of this negative emotional reaction in boys and girls, but with with age, their frequency and intensity increase in boys, and decrease in girls. The authors explain this by the fact that girls, having the same aggressive tendencies as boys, are afraid to show them because of possible punishment, while the surroundings are more favorable to the aggression of boys.
Sadness in men and women
L. V. Kulikov revealed significant differences in the self-assessment of sadness: it is higher in women. The same was revealed by M. S. Ponomareva with the only difference that junior schoolchildren the tendency to sadness is more pronounced in boys.
The manifestation of fear in men and women
According to A.I. Zakharov (1995), the number of fears (that is, what they are afraid of) is greater in girls than in boys. In adult men, the fear of heights is more pronounced, and in adult women - the death of their parents. In women, the fear of war, the fear of doing something wrong or not being able to do it in time, is also much more pronounced. Girls have 6 times more imaginary fears than boys.
The manifestation of joy in men and women
The tendency to joy, according to M. S. Ponomareva, did not reveal clear gender differences: at 8-9, 12-13 and 16-17 years old, it is equally expressed in boys and girls, and at the age of 10-11 and 14-15 years this tendency is more pronounced in girls.
The literature notes a greater emotional sensitivity and emotional instability of women. The study of this issue by E. P. Ilyin and V. G. Pinigin (2001) on schoolchildren and students using self-assessments of life manifestations of emotions showed that females clearly outperform males in all age groups in terms of emotional excitability, to a lesser extent - in terms of intensity, and to a lesser extent - in terms of the duration of preservation of emotions and emotional stability.
Emotional memory in men and women
Yu. L. Khanin (1978) received data that can be interpreted in favor of the conclusion that women have better emotional memory than men.
True, the revealed differences between men and women in remembering their experiences can be explained by worse reflection in men than in women, and less in men than in women, the severity of anxiety, but all this also needs to be proven.
Guilt and conscience. The gender factor has a strong influence on the experience of guilt: in men it is less pronounced and they are much less likely to talk about the experience of guilt than women. (L. V. Kulikov, 1997; V. S. Savina, 2001).
Differences in anxiety (emotional stability) in men and women
The fact of greater anxiety and neuroticism (leading to emotional lability, instability) of females compared to males has been found in many studies (see, for example, the works of L.P. Badanina, 1996; V.D. Kuzakova, 1975; A. I. Vinokurova, 1996). However, despite the great anxiety, women are more capable than men of suppressing it (K. D. Shafranskaya, 1973).
Problematic concern (anxiety) in men and women
The greater anxiety and neuroticism of females is also manifested in their greater problematic concern.
S. Archer (S. Archer, 1985) found that 42% of girls are concerned about the inability to combine family and work in the future. There were no such concerns among the young men. Seventy-five percent of the boys answered that nothing bothers them, while at the same time only 16% of the girls were like that.
According to A. G. Gretsov (2000), problem concerns in almost all aspects of life are more pronounced in girls than in boys (Table 4.3).
Envy in men and women
According to N. E. Serebryakova (2001), who applied an original technique for identifying envy in relation to the success of another in various life situations, women have higher envy than men, excluding career; no differences between men and women were found here.
Jealousy in men and women
Men are most jealous when their partner has sex with someone else. Women experience the most jealousy when their partner becomes emotionally attached to another. Psychologists believe that these differences reflect men's concerns about the validity of their paternity and women's need for partner care (Buss, 1994). However, this is hardly the only issue.
Resentment in men and women
With regard to resentment, significant gender differences, according to P. A. Kovalev, were not revealed.
Abilities of men and women
Attention in men and women
M. S. Egorova and N. F. Shlyakhta (1987)
when performing tasks for attention, girls are guided by speed, and boys - by accuracy.
At the age of 22 to 33, there were no significant differences between men and women in concentration and attention span.
In tasks where you need to quickly perceive details and often switch attention, women show greater efficiency than men (D. Andrew, D. Paterson, 1946)
Sensory-perceptual abilities
Perception in men and women
There are noticeable differences between male and female subjects in relation to the perception of time and space. So, according to G. S. Shlyakhtin (1997), women overestimate the duration of time intervals (from 3 to 40 s) to a greater extent than men, i.e., for women, time runs faster.
The attitude of men to their birthday is also peculiar. For them, it is a starting point, a time for summing up and setting new tasks for the future. If at this point the score is not in favor of the man, deep stress sets in, provoking illnesses, the outcome of which can be the saddest. It is no coincidence that studies based on more than 3 million testimonies of people who died of natural causes showed that most men die within last week before birthday.
As S. Witelson (1976) points out, researchers are generally unanimous that tasks for spatial and temporal orientation are performed by males with great success and with less mental effort.
Observation in men and women
As shown in the book "Issues of Practical Psychodiagnostics ..." (1984), observation is higher in males, * and it is no coincidence, obviously, forensic experts point out that erroneous testimonies are more common in females: men more accurately convey the phenomena of the surrounding world, testimonies women often do not correspond to reality.
Intelligence in men and women
The theory of X. Ellis (H. Ellis, 1904), according to which the spread of the level of intelligence is greater in men than in women. This means that women in their mass have an average level of intelligence, while in men the average intelligence is less common than in women, but among them there are more gifted and mentally retarded.
The American anthropologist E. Montague in his book "The Natural Superiority of Woman" wrote that the average IQ of women is higher than that of men, and they retain it better in old age.
This inversion is explained by the fact that the morphological maturation of the brain in girls is faster (T. P. Khrizman, V. D. Eremeeva, 1984; D. Waber, 1976), therefore, at the age of 5-10 years, they are ahead of boys in intellectual abilities. Then males not only catch up with the level of intellectual development of females, but also surpass them (Table 5.2, given according to E. I. Stepanova, 2000).
M. M. Garifullina and E. R. Peets (1977) revealed that in men, figurative thinking has a higher level of development.
V. P. Bagrunov (1984) notes that men are better at solving new intellectual and sensorimotor tasks, however, during training and stereotyping, these gender differences are leveled. Moreover, the intellectual and sensorimotor activity of women is more amenable to change during training and training, as a result of which women achieve better results in activities that require the development of stereotypical professional skills, this author argues.
Spatial abilities in men and women
The performance of intellectual tests, which largely depend on spatial rather than verbal abilities, is also better performed by boys (A. Macmeeken, 1939).
However, in reality, not only men may not understand women, but women may also not understand men, since behind the same concepts and phrases, both may have different semantic content and different attitudes. This is shown in the work of A. V. Vizgina
Creativity in men and women
M. Kostik (Kostik, 1954) and E. Hilgard with co-authors (E. Hilgard et al., 1954) revealed the advantage of males (school graduates and students) in transferring learning (applying skills and knowledge to new situations).
E. Sweeney (E. Sweeney, 1953) found a significant superiority of men in "restructuring", that is, the rejection of the original approach and the organization of facts in a new way. This was found in male and female groups, equalized in terms of general mental, verbal and mathematical abilities.
N.V. Gavryushkina (2001) studied creativity in boys and girls aged 9-12 and obtained somewhat different data: non-verbal creativity is the same in boys and girls, and verbal creativity is higher in girls and due to it, their overall creativity is also higher ( Fig. 5.3).
Critical thinking in men and women
Some authors express the opinion that men are more critical than women. M. D. Aleksandrova (1974), analyzing the data of American authors, concludes that the decrease in critical thinking in men begins after 30 years, in women - later (after 40 years), but it occurs more sharply.
Memory in men and women
A volumetric gender-age study of memory was carried out by VF Konovalov et al. (1987). Short-term memory was studied for memorizing numbers from 0 to 9. At the age of 5-10 years, the memorization of numbers was the best among girls (Fig. 5.6). At the age of 15-17 years, no differences were found between boys and girls. At the age of 18-35 years, the best indicators of memorization were already in men, since their memory growth was still observed, and in women, memory remained at the level of 15-17 years. /remembering depends on motivation and interests/orientation/.
According to Kazan psychologists, the advantage of men or women (students) in short-term memory depends on the material being memorized: when memorizing numbers, men have an advantage, and when memorizing words, women, but when memorizing words, these differences are insignificant.
According to V. P. Umnov (1979), female students aged 18-21 have better figurative memory than students of the same age.
Verbal abilities in men and women
Female superiority in verbal or linguistic functions is noted from infancy to middle age(D. McCarthy, 1954; L. Terman, L. Tyler, 1954).
E. M. Danilovich (1982) revealed a higher rate of articulation in women compared to men.
That side of speech that is associated with the search: finding word associations, solving crossword puzzles - is better represented in boys and men. For example, E. I. Stepanova provides data on the differences between men and women in the speed and accuracy of associative reactions to words. At the age of 18-19, men reacted faster and more accurately.
Speech disorders are more common in boys.
Artistic and musical abilities in men and women
Girls of preschool age draw, as a rule, in more detail than boys of the same age (A. Gesell et al., 1940).
No significant gender differences in auditory discrimination and musical memory were found (P. Farnsworth, 1931).
So, let's sum up some results. Women are superior to men in speed of perception, in counting and fluency of speech. Men have some advantage in spatial and temporal orientation, understanding of mechanical relationships and mathematical reasoning (J. Levy, R. C. Gur, 1980; M. Mac Gee, 1979; J. Mac Glone, 1980).
Aggression in men and women
Differences in aggressive behavior are among the most significant gender differences, but, like the others we have examined, they are far from being as large and not as clearly related to biological differences as one might think.
In their review of the literature on gender differences, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that aggression is the only social behavior for which there is evidence for a completely clear sex difference.
All three meta-analyses of the psychological literature conducted in the 1980s (Eagly & Steffen, 1986; Hyde, 1984b; Hyde, 1986) also concluded that there are gender differences in aggressive behavior.
However, Eagly and Steffen (1986) concluded that these differences are very small for adults.
In Hyde's (1984 b) work, which contains a large number of studies conducted on children's samples, only 2 to 5% of all cases of aggressive behavior can be explained by gender (ie, 95 to 98% comes from other sources).
Part of our distorted perception of gender differences in aggression can be explained by the fact that the vast majority of rapists and murderers are men. However, as Burbank (1994) quite rightly pointed out, such actions are performed by a very small proportion of men. Given these extremes, the behavior of most men is similar to that of most women. Another reason we think of men as more aggressive is our culture's belief that higher blood testosterone levels make them that way. In fact, there is as yet no conclusive experimental evidence for a human testosterone-aggression relationship (Bjorkvist, 1994).
Eagly (1978) states that of the 22 studies on the topic conducted and published before 1970, 32% indicate a greater degree of exposure in women, while of the 40 studies published after 1970, only 8% found the same differences.
She noted that the socio-psychological impact of biological sex seems to depend on the context of culture.
Eagly also concluded that, based on the fact that we tend to obey the opinions of others when we are not sure of our position or abilities, the greatest gender differences will be found in studies using topics in which members of the same gender are better oriented.
For example, a number of early studies of gender differences drew on military and political knowledge (Eagly, 1978). Sistrunk and McDavid (1971) and Goldberg (1974, 1975) found the following pattern: when women's themes, men were more likely to conform than women, and vice versa.
Maupin and Fischer (Maupin & Fischer, 1989) also found that the resulting gender differences in exposure are influenced by whether the task is in any way related to gender and whether men (or women) have a clear superiority in this area. .
Generally accepted, evidence-based psychological differences between the two sexes:
The difference in the cognitive sphere of men and women
the fact that there are gender differences in verbal, spatial and mathematical abilities.
Women have better developed verbal abilities, while men have better spatial and mathematical abilities. The smallest differences were found in verbal abilities in favor of women, the largest in spatial processing of information and in favor of men. With regard to differences in mathematical ability, the results are not unambiguous.
If we are talking about school age, the presence of gender differences in mathematical abilities has not been proven, at the same time, the results obtained on a student sample show that young people perform tasks more successfully than girls in general.
Social behavior of men and women
men are characterized by a higher level of development of such traits as aggressiveness and dominance, while women are characterized by friendliness and contact.
Men are characterized by a pronounced tendency towards independence, while women are oriented towards interdependence, which in the context of an authoritarian society often transforms into dependence.
Women are more socially oriented, they are more aware of the connections that unite people and make their communication more trusting. Men, on the other hand, strive for independence through avoidance of dependence.
Attitude to the world around men and women
The male attitude is characterized by assertiveness, self-confidence, orientation to control.
The female version of the attitude to the outside world is characterized by a focus on maintaining the established types of interactions with people.
Social roles of men and women
For women, family roles are more significant, and for men, professional ones. Women's role in the family is more related to the care and care of family members; professional status plays a central role in male self-identification.
So, in numerous studies it has been convincingly proven that even the really existing differences between men and women are very small and often do not exceed 5%. In fact, there are much more similarities between men and women in psychological characteristics than differences.
In their famous review, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) singled out only four psychological differences between the sexes (spatial ability, mathematical ability, language skills, and aggressiveness). It is these four differences that are commonly referred to in psychology writings, with little or no mention of the fact that men and women are much more similar (Unger, 1988), and largely silent about the fact that recent studies, these differences turned out to be quite small and situation-specific (this is what will be discussed in this chapter).
sexual dimorphism
Gender differences in the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system and temperament
According to A. M. Sukhareva (1972), an increase with age in the number of persons with a large and medium strength of the nervous system is expressed both in males and females, but in the latter it is more pronounced (due to the fact that girls 7- 8 years with a weak nervous system more than boys of the same age, and at the age of 18-25 there are no differences between males and females in the number of persons with a strong and weak nervous system)
Mobility of nervous processes in men and women
According to N. E. Vysotskaya (1972) and A. G. Pinchukov (1974), among boys 7-16 years old, the number of persons with mobility of both excitation and inhibition is greater than among girls. Then, with the mobility of excitation, more women become.
There are no significant differences between boys and girls of school age in terms of "external" balance. Before the period of puberty, there are somewhat more persons with a predominance of inhibition among girls, as well as after it. At puberty, there are more persons with a predominance of inhibition among boys. Perhaps this is due to the fact that this period begins earlier in girls and, consequently, the number of persons with a predominance of inhibition decreases in them (due to a shift in the balance towards excitation). In terms of the number of persons with a predominance of excitation, there were practically no differences between males and females in all age groups.
Lability in men and women
According to E.V. Voronin (1984), there are no significant differences in lability between men and women: lability to light was on average 39.2 and 38.9 units, respectively, and to sound - 75.9 and 74.5 units .
However, N. M. Peisakhov and A. O. Prokhorov (1975) found statistically significant differences in CFM (critical flicker frequency) in favor of men.
Differences in the temperaments of men and women
I. M. Vladimirova (2001), using the D. Keirsey questionnaire to identify types of temperament, found that in the sample of men there were twice more faces sensory planning (SJ) and four times the intuitive thinking (NT) type, in the group of women there are twice as many persons of the intuitive emotional (NF) type. Girls were found to be more extroverted (E), emotional (F), more intuitive (N), and more spontaneous (P) than boys. The young men, on the other hand, were distinguished by their mentality (T) and regularity (J).
According to N. Gerasimova (1998), the sociability of women aged 20-25 is significantly higher than that of men of the same age.
N. Geschwind (1978) believes that there is a male brain and a female brain. He argues that testosterone in the period of intrauterine development of a person slows down the development of the left hemisphere of the brain. The consequence of this is an increase in the males of the right hemisphere. Thus, it is they who are destined to become outstanding musicians, artists, mathematicians. This conclusion seems to be confirmed by the data of V. D. Eremeeva and T. P. Khrizman (2001): in the mass school, boys of the right hemisphere type (“artists”) and girls of the left hemisphere type (“thinkers”) are more successful in primary school. However, in the gymnasium, where a foreign language is introduced in the first grade and subjects are taught by different teachers, the picture is reversed for boys: the left hemisphere learns more successfully than the right hemisphere.
Comparing their data with the data of other scientists, V.F. Konovalov and N.A. Otmakhova came to the conclusion that the left hemisphere in both men and women is equally specialized, namely for analytical, consistent verbal-logical thinking. The right hemisphere in men is more specialized in analog, figurative, spatial thinking, which is less represented in women due to its participation in speech behavior. In other words, the authors conclude, the specialization of the right hemisphere in men and women is different.
Gender is a social gender that determines the characteristics of personal and group behavior.
gender stereotype is an emotionally colored and simplified image of a woman and a man.
There are three types of stereotypes. The first is related to the consolidation of professional and family roles. The second is with femininity and masculinity. And the third stereotypical group is associated with differences (gender) in labor content.
Men and women are always assigned a specific style of behavior. "Feminine" is considered sinful, bodily, negative, childbearing, sensual, secondary. "Male" is compared with something positive, cultural, dominant, dominating.
As for labor activity, stereotypes have established their own rules in it. A man is closer to leading and creative work. For a woman - serving labor (an activity that is expressive in nature).
Let's touch on male and female family roles. There is an opinion that a man should not (be that as it may) be fully involved in family affairs, since this is a woman's duty.
Gender differences between men and women
Brain
It's no longer a secret that due to brain differences in the brain, men and women are noticeably different.
Women often “play” with hints and often do not understand why men ask to speak in detail and clearly about everything. The fact is that the male half of humanity has a better developed right hemisphere. This dominance suggests that they are used to taking all words literally and not looking for hidden meanings in them.
But the male brain is three hundred and twenty grams heavier than the female. Men are proud of this fact.
The degree of female mental endowment is three and a half percent higher than male (despite the fact that the average intelligence score (120) is the same for both men and women).
Communication
Differences in communication are visible from an early age. Girls are always more talkative than their peers - boys. In general, women are twice as sociable as men.
Do an experiment and you will see that this is true.
Women even speak their own thoughts. They always want to speak. The men meditate silently.
Males mostly talk with friends solely on business or in order to make a "beer" company.
Women never get tired of talking. They always find a reason for it. And if the ladies are silent for a long time, then something has happened to them.
Behavior
Men cry, but only when they get drunk at those moments when they are sure that no one sees their condition.
Women often speak out about their experiences, plans and ideas. Men have to “pull their tongues” in order to learn from them at least some of the details of a particular case (case, plan, and so on).
Conflict resolution
It has been found that women cope with emotional problems more easily than with family conflicts.
During the height of the conflict, men are focused on the very subject, through the fault of which the quarrel broke out. Women remember all their past mistakes, sins. They are more guided by someone else's opinion. What explains this behaviour? High degree of conformity.
Health
Revisit the old cartoon about Carlson. He has such a phrase: “I am the sickest person in the world!”. It was not said in vain, as it very well (accurately) characterizes the bulk of men.
Women have their own history. They try not to whine, not to talk about illnesses and bad health. They do everything to appear stronger than they are in the eyes of men.
Women often trust self-medication, folk remedies and methods. Men choose the clinic and hospital corridors because they are sure that they have chosen the safest path.
Men get sick more often than women. Because they are used to being taken care of. If they are not given due attention, then they begin to resent, scandalize, scream and get nervous. Such elements of behavior exacerbate the diseases that men have.
Habit
Women can give up all habits if required. It is much more difficult for men to part with what they are used to. Sometimes they refer to excuses like: "I'm so used to it, I'm sorry!". Women expect changes from men, but more often they do not wait for them.
The habit of eating is a male habit. Men rarely understand those women who "turn on" willpower and adhere to all sorts of dietary prescriptions.
Hobbies, hobbies
Sports, gambling, cars, motorcycles are considered purely male hobbies. Embroidery, dancing, cooking are considered women's hobbies. Modern world made it so that the boundaries of hobbies were “erased”. After all, there are men who love to cook. By the way, it is proved that men are the best cooks!
Love
A man rarely confesses his love, putting the deepest sincerity into words. He is not built like a woman. Male representatives have romantic impulses, but men are not able to stay in a romantic atmosphere all the time.
Women refuse to understand this because they love flowers, sweets, beautiful music, surprises, unexpected gifts.
Sex
Many men are in no hurry to tie the knot, because they are afraid that their “halves” will quickly lose all their sexuality.
Women are in a hurry to get married because they are seized by the fear of loneliness and "uselessness". In order to become the wife of a loved one, they fulfill all male sexual whims and whims, often imitating an orgasm.
You may now be surprised but the fact remains: a man perceives sexual acts (relationships) as an opportunity for self-affirmation and self-actualization.
For women, sex is a confirmation of deep feelings. For men - satisfaction of needs and obtaining "natural" pleasure.
SEX AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN MEN AND WOMEN, PECULIARITIES OF THEIR STUDY
N.G. MAKAROVA
Department of Psychology International Independent University of Ecology and Political Science Cosmonaut Volkova, 20, Moscow, Russia
The article deals with gender and gender differences between men and women, the features of their study.
A study by scientists of various sciences of the problem of differences between men and women shows that the distinctive features of men and women are associated with biology, gender psychology, the level of socialization and cross-cultural aspects, include the following blocks of factors:
1st block - biological factors: biological signs; genetic traits; psychophysiological signs (sex hormones);
2nd block - social and psychological factors: distribution of labor in accordance with gender; assignment of sex roles: a) child's imitation of the behavior of parents of the same sex; b) the child's imitation of the behavior of adults in the relevant group; identification by the child with his own gender, its acceptance and conformity of behavior with it, expected by society; assimilation of social norms, social attitudes, gender stereotypes that define society; assessment of children's behavior depending on gender;
3rd block - cultural factors: distribution of labor depending on culture; appropriation of gender attitudes, customs and behaviors in accordance with culture.
It should be borne in mind that "sex" is determined at the time of birth. The same cannot be said about “gender”, since a person’s awareness of his social affiliation occurs throughout his life in the process of upbringing, development and formation as a person, as a result of which he learns the necessary norms of behavior, understanding the specifics of activity. "Gender" is hallmark men and women according to the set of chromosomes, hormonal set, anatomical and reproductive features, and the concept of "gender" is their distinctive characteristic in terms of the social aspect. This means that a man and a woman must play a certain social role, comply with the given rules and norms of behavior, the specifics of activities that are determined by society in a particular culture in accordance with their gender.
Most often, people try to adhere to social norms, and the main reason for this is the desire of a person to be accepted by society. This kind of desire is achieved through the implementation of the following mechanisms (Mischle1 \¥., 1970):
1) “differential reinforcement”, in which acceptable gender-role behavior is encouraged, and unacceptable behavior is punished. This goal can be achieved with the help of parental education in the form of approval or disapproval of those activities performed by children that are appropriate for gender;
2) "differential imitation", which means that a person determines the behavior model of the relevant group and behaves in accordance with it.
Usually people choose such role models in behavior that correlate with their gender. Before moving on to the issue discussed in this article, it is important to define the concept of “gender”.
Based on the content analysis of domestic and foreign literature, it is possible to identify the essential features of gender, which boil down to the following:
Social characteristic personality, which is formed in the process of its development in accordance with a certain sex - a man and a woman - must correspond to certain social rules and norms of behavior necessary for society in different cultures, starting from birth;
The specificity of gender is manifested in socio-psychological relations - communication, interaction with other people at the level of behavioral forms depending on gender;
Gender defines a set of personality conventions that reflect typical traits, stereotypes, and roles that are characteristic of men and women. Gender stereotypes express society's attitudes towards behavior patterns that are expected from men and women;
A socio-psychological construct, which is the essence, mechanism and specifics of the formation of masculinity and femininity features in society, which are reflected in socio-psychological characteristics;
Socio-psychological characteristics of a person, arising on the basis of biological sex, but necessarily in interaction with other people and differing in mental, emotional and behavioral characteristics;
Gender characteristics are manifested due to the socialization of the individual and depending on the culture, which change with the maturation of the individual;
Defines a hierarchy social relations between the sexes and inequality of opportunity - a system of power relations, where a man dominates (public sphere), and a woman submits (private sphere);
Assumes a conscious acceptance of one's own gender - a conscious acceptance of sex - a conscious meaning of sex.
Despite numerous theories devoted to the problem of sex and gender differences, there is still no single approach to this problem, which complicates its empirical study.
The study of the problem confirms that in the experiment, within the framework of distinctive sexual and gender characteristics, their study is determined by the tasks set by the psychologist:
1) when studying mental cognitive processes, personal characteristics, they talk about gender differences, since research is primarily aimed at determining various psychological characteristics, and then pay attention to gender;
2) in the study of socio-cultural and socio-psychological properties of masculinity, femininity and androgyny of people, regardless of their biological sex (role positions, etc.), in the study of value orientations, including focus on human relationships and family (femininity), as well as success and achievement of goals, (masculinity) gender differences are considered.
As for the methods for studying gender characteristics, there are very few of them, namely: the method for studying gender stereotypes in the questionnaires of G. Geimans, the method for studying gender attitudes in children (a semi-standardized interview by V.E. Kagan), the method for studying leadership and gender styles of behavior manager A. Cann and D. Siegfried (modified by T.V. Bendas), a method for identifying masculinity - femininity (Freiburg Personality Questionnaire PP1), a method of "masculinity - femininity" by S. Bam, a method for studying gender stereotypes - a questionnaire that offers to evaluate images : " ideal woman”, “a woman as opposed to a man”, “the purpose of a woman”, “a woman’s assessment of herself”, the study of gender identity using the focus group method, etc.
All of the listed methods reflect gender characteristics, but not always when studying them, only these methods should be used. Often, the usual standard questionnaires are used to study personal characteristics, taking into account the gender category. The exception is the methods of studying mental cognitive processes (sensation, perception, attention, memory, thinking, imagination, as well as intelligence, creativity, abilities).
The study found that the empirical study of the distinctive features of men and women in terms of their comparison is carried out in three different directions:
1) the study of gender differences (studies of mental cognitive processes, intelligence, creativity, abilities);
2) gender characteristics (gender identity, gender stereotypes, gender attitudes, femininity - masculinity);
3) gender differences (psychological characteristics of a person: mental states and mental properties of a person; volitional, emotional, motivational spheres).
We believe that at present there is a need to create an integrated plan methodology that facilitates the study of the totality
qualities that reflect the ideological, need-motivational, value-oriented and behavioral-active components of men and women. Work on its creation and testing is ongoing.
SEX AND GENDER DISTINCTIONS OF MEN AND WOMEN, FEATURES OF THEIR STUDYING
The Chair of Psychology
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The article considers sex and gender distinctions of men and women, features of their study.
The high significance of the entire spectrum of objective and subjective relationships between a man and a woman has been the subject of close attention from thinkers, philosophers, and psychologists for centuries. With the discovery of the category of gender, differences in the perception and interpretation of the surrounding reality, the implementation of behavioral strategies by men and women are considered not from the standpoint of biodeterminism, but as socioculturally conditioned categories.
Definition 1
In other words, gender differences are the result of socialization, upbringing, education of the individual.
The Role of Biological Factors in the Formation of Gender Differences
In modern psychological science, two opposing approaches to understanding the root cause of the formation of gender differences are clearly distinguished. Proponents of the biological approach emphasize the leading role of biological factors in the development of gender differences between men and women.
In the concept of supporters of biodeterminism, differences in the implementation of the perception and interpretation of social phenomena are a continuation of biological differences.
Since genetic prerequisites are the foundation for the development of the future man and woman, social factors are perceived as secondary, the priority role is given to hormonal background, differences in the development of the corpus callosum, and other genetic factors.
As a result of differences in brain organization, representatives of the opposite sexes show differences in the organization of various psychological functions.
The Role of Social Factors in the Formation of Gender Differences
Opponents of the concept of biodeterminism adhere to the opposite position, pointing to the priority role of social factors in the process of personality formation, and, accordingly, gender differences.
Definition 2
Within the framework of this approach, gender is perceived solely as an initial incentive, a signal for the application of certain educational, educational measures.
It is no secret that the attitude of parents towards a newborn differs significantly from the gender of the child. Depending on the gender stereotypes that prevail and are socially approved at a particular stage of the historical development of society, parents organize the object-spatial environment in an appropriate way, choose clothes, means and methods of education. Thus, from the first days of life, the parents' stereotypical perception of the child's gender forms stereotypical expectations and stereotypical education of the newborn's personality, which "absorbs" sex-role, gender stereotypes of thinking and behavior.
Definition 3
Synthesizing both approaches, we can conclude that gender differences are based on objective biological factors, however, the severity of these differences is determined by the specificity and direction of social factors.
Genetic, cerebral, endocrine factors do not affect the development of gender psychological differences between a man and a woman, but the level of motor, psychological activity of the body. Directly related to biological factors physical activity, speed of reactions, excitability, etc. The biologically determined activity of reactive, mental reactions is the foundation, the source material for the formation, development and implementation of various forms of self-expression in a social context.
The role of society in the formation of gender differences
The implementation of various forms of self-expression in a social context models behavior, a behavioral strategy, in the structure of which motives, goals, values and means are distinguished, which are formed under the influence of society and the cultural model. It is society that determines the boundaries and means of manifestation of the biological and psychological activity of the individual.
In turn, culture is understood as a system of signs, with the help of which a person designates his natural, personal qualities, gives them a socially significant meaning.
It is culture that acts as a system-forming feature of behavior, the basis for the classification of female, male, neutral signs.
Definition 4
Thus, gender differences are the result of the interaction of biological and social factors in a certain social context, under the influence of which a set of gender stereotypes is formed that determine the perception of reality and the implementation of behavior by an individual.
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